About the Author
Susan Setzer is Assistant Professor of Literature and Chair
of the Department of Literature and Languages at Maharishi
University of Management. She received her A.B. from the
University of Nebraska, her A.M. and Ph.D. in English
Literature from the University of Illinois. She has taught at
the University of Nebraska, University of Illinois, and at
Maharishi University of Management (formerly Maharishi
International University) since 1981. She has presented conference
papers on Whitman, Charlotte Bronte, and the teaching
of English. With Rhoda Orme-Johnson she edited a collection
of lectures on literature and language by Maharishi
Mahesh Yogi. With Terry Fairchild she published “Consciousness
and Literary Studies” in Modern Science and
Vedic Science and is currently finishing a paper entitled
“The Self-Referral Source of Myth in Charlotte Bronte’s
Shirley.”
2
Address correspondence to: Department of Literature
Maharishi University of Management, Fairfield, IA 52557
Modern Science and Vedic Science, Volume 9, Number 1, 1999
©1999 Maharishi University of Management
3
Whitman, Transcendentalism and the
American Dream: Alliance with Nature’s
Government through Language
Susan Setzer
Maharishi University of Management
Fairfield, Iowa, U.S.A.
Abstract
Whitman envisioned a unified America at a time when it was being divided by civil war,
an America able to harmonize its differences through the power of language and poetry.
For contemporary readers it is difficult to comprehend why Whitman believed poetry
could be a force for balancing the needs of individuals and society. This article will
evaluate Whitman’s claims that his language program could unify the self, culture, and
Natural Law through the aesthetic experience, a claim supported by the principles of
Maharishi Vedic Science.
Contents
Introduction: The Culture Crisis and Whitman’s Language Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Self-Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Cultural Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Part I: Self-Referral Consciousness and the Levels of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Transcendentalist Self-Culture and Maharishi’s “Self-Referral” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
In Harmony with Natural Law: “Nature’s Government” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Wealth of a Culture Is in Its Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
A Language Experiment Based on Natural Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Consciousness or “Presence” in Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Correspondence Theory of Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Language of Nature: The Continuum of Consciousness,
Language, and Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Vedic Language Theory Based on States of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Levels of Language in Whitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Evolution of Language According to Whitman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Primordial Poetry and the “Songs of Nations” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Primordial Language in Maharishi Vedic Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Maharishi’s Theory of Cultural Integrity and the “Mother Tongue” . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Part II: Higher States of Consciousness and the Aesthetic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
How the Aesthetic Response Connects Us to Natural Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Whitman’s Aesthetics of Perfect Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
An Aesthetics Derived from Maharishi Vedic Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Is the Aesthetic Response Escapist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Aesthetic Response Integrates Mind and Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
A Practical Aesthetics of Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Whitman’s Rhythm of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Psychophysiology of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Conclusion: The Competent Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Introduction:
The Culture Crisis and Whitman’s Language Experiment
The topic of change was uppermost in Whitman’s mind as the America of the
1850s drifted inexorably towards civil war, and his Leaves of Grass embodied the paradigm
shift he felt required to take democracy beyond the present crisis. The spiritual
purpose of a nation, he believed, came out in its great literature, and America had so far
lacked that vision of itself. Language would help make the shift happen through the
vehicle of Whitman’s poetry, a “language experiment” to unify a Union drifting apart.
Language, Whitman knew, could preserve cultural values through stories. But language
also had an inner value which could speak to the higher self of the individual, connecting
him or her to cosmic order. Making that connection, Whitman says in the 1855
Preface to Leaves of Grass, is the poet’s job: “Folks expect of the poet to indicate . . .
the path between reality and their souls” (1980, p. 10).
Pondering how to fix it, Whitman asked himself where was the Union of States
located? He decided it was to be found in the hearts and minds of the country’s citizens,
in their participation in the flow of natural evolution, not in a charter on paper: “To hold
men together by paper and seal or by compulsion is no account, / That only holds men
together which aggregates all in a living principle. . . .” (“By Blue Ontario’s Shore,”
1987, p. 198). He believed the poet could put this “living principle” into a language that
would speak to and unite all classes of Americans. He was confident he himself could
do this because he knew the secret which connected language to Nature and to the
Being in all creatures. This power of language to connect with Nature, however, did not
work so much through logic nor by representing things symbolically, but rather through
direct contact with reality, through a language’s sound and rhythm.
Language could communicate the living presence of people and things and the
underlying Self or Oversoul of which they were a part. Whitman saw his poems, then,
as ceremonies enacting a ritual of union, yet also as initiations pushing each soul onto
its own quest for the Self.
4
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Self-Culture
Leaves of Grass, therefore, proposes a renewal of American democracy through
what Emerson called “self-culture,” the transformation of the ego by the transcendental
Self (Albanese, 1988, pp. 13–14). Emerson thought a person needed both culture and
self-culture for full human development, for to know culture—the refinement of the
mind through contact with great ideas and art—without developing the
Transcendentalist inner Genius—the higher self—was a waste of time (“The American
Scholar,” 1971, pp. 53–57). Without awakening the higher creative self, a person could
not add to or make use of culture; one could merely learn it by rote. Self-culture was,
therefore, the prerequisite for existing in harmony with the divine purpose of the cosmos:
To live on earth while “be[ing] transformed into the likeness of the eternal world
. . . and speak the language of Heaven” (Self-Culture, 1938, p. 104).
Whitman in turn called this total self-development “Personalism,” the unfoldment
of the full cultural and spiritual potential of each individual: “The quality of BEING, in
the object’s self, according to its own central idea and purpose, and of growing therefrom
and thereto—not criticism by other standards, and adjustments thereto—is the lesson
of Nature” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 960). In “A Backward Glance Over
Traveled Roads” he said, “In the centre of all, and object of all, stands the Human
Being, towards whose heroic and spiritual evolution poems and everything directly or
indirectly tend, Old World or New” (1982, p. 664).
Kerry Larson (1988) notes that Whitman shifted from his early cultural concerns of
political journalism to “extrapolitical means of realizing his dream of consensus.” That
is, he began to speak the language of poetry, a far more culturally integrative system
than polemics (p. xvii). The language of his poetry, he believed, would be the clarion
call to establish a balanced republic that could accommodate both individual growth and
national unity. Furthermore, Whitman’s poetry would unify both culture and the self by
means of self-culture through the “aesthetic response”—that shift in the reader’s awareness
that leads to the higher self.
Cultural Unity
Leaves of Grass foreshadows the crisis in American culture that exists today. Ed
Fulsom (1994) points out in The Centennial Essays that “no American poet has had the
impact on succeeding generations that Whitman has had, and no American writer has
more fully helped us clarify the elements that compose this culture.” He adds, we will
“continue the important work of understanding ourselves through Whitman” (p. xxiii).
Whitman sees clearly that the relationship between unity and diversity is the underlying
problem of modern culture, a conclusion acknowledged and elaborated in Maharishi
Vedic Science. The nation’s motto “e pluribus unum” conveys the ideal of a unity of the
majority, but the question remains how to maintain the balance between the needs of the
plural and the needs of the individual. Although Whitman’s poetry enacts unity by
accepting and celebrating everything as part of himself, he does not advocate unity at
the price of individual identity, nor does he exalt the kind of individuality destructive of
the whole. He knows that real unity in diversity is something that is subtle and intangi-
5
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
ble. The “fusion of the States” Whitman hoped for was not through an obliteration of
differences. For “genuine union” is not accomplished through law, economics, or anything
on a material level, he tells us, but through “the fervid and tremendous IDEA,
melting everything else with resistless heat, and solving all lesser and definite distinctions
in vast, indefinite, spiritual, [and] emotional power” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982,
pp. 935–6). In other words, his conclusions about unity are in the direction of
Maharishi’s explanation, that unity of life is located in consciousness, not in physical or
political force. Social unity is achieved through inner unity, through self-culture,
through developing the higher self. Language, a medium with the fluidity of consciousness,
is refined enough to carry diverse voices to the inner self, blending and uniting all
into a harmonious flow without damaging the integrity of any. Culture, language,
nature, and aesthetics fit for Whitman into one interlocking, unifying design.
Today, few scholars trust that language can regenerate or unify culture the way
Whitman imagined. In this postmodern era that gravitates towards difference rather than
unity, this study hopes to rescue Whitman’s unified vision of American culture from the
onslaught of fragmenting criticisms by applying Maharishi Mahesh Yogi’s pragmatic
theories of consciousness and aesthetics grounded in the empiricism of direct experience.
This paper will especially apply such fundamental principles from Maharishi’s
Vedic ScienceSM as self-referral consciousness, levels of language, and higher states of
consciousness to Whitman’s poetry to show that he was neither an impractical “mystic”
nor a naive idealist. Like other Transcendentalists, he believed the American Dream
must be reinterpreted to include connections to society, to the Transcendentalist Self,
alternately called Genius, the Oversoul, and Nature, concepts reminiscent of
Maharishi’s “totality of Natural Law.”
This paper, then, will address two major concerns—language and the aesthetic
response. Part I will examine Whitman’s “language experiment” and the Vedic levels of
language explained by Maharishi. Part II will look closely at the “aesthetic response”
that both Whitman and Maharishi Vedic ScienceSM see as integrating and leading back
to the Self.
The paper will begin with a closer investigation of self-culture, the culturing of the
Self, as understood by Whitman and other Transcendentalists and a corresponding concept
of Maharishi Vedic Science called self-referral. Both of these forms of culturing,
we will see, when incorporated into an individual or society lead to harmony with the
Transcendentalists’ Nature or Maharishi’s Natural Law. One way individuals or societies
may attune themselves to Nature is by experiencing “presence,” the essence of
words, a concept denied and deconstructed by current postmodern culture.
Transcendentalists also believed in the correspondence theory of language, that language
functions as a bridge between matter and spirit, a theory that shares certain similarities
to the Vedic concept namarupa—the correlation between name and form.
Moreover, the Transcendentalists believed that language was alive and could even be a
model of the higher Self. This transcendental signified, as the postmoderns call it, is
denied by contemporary theorists who believe language is only the play of difference.
Vedic language theory, as explained by Maharishi, would hold that this play of difference
is true, but only on the grossest levels of language and speech. By refining one’s sensi-
6
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
tivity to subtler levels of speech, the silent but vibrant dimension of words that unify
and precede the spoken level—the Self which is the foundation of language—can be
experienced. Maharishi Vedic Science describes the primordial sounds of language as
those sounds which emanate from Nature and are heard in the eternal silence of pure
consciousness. Whitman believed that language has both this transcendental aspect to it
and also an aspect that was subject to time. The Vedic concept of “levels” of language,
missing in contemporary linguistics, offers support to Whitman’s transcendental theories
of language and completes the fragmented beliefs of the postmoderns.
Part II considers the aesthetic response in the audience, that joyous psychophysiological
reaction to art that creates bliss. Bliss, Maharishi explains, is more than happiness;
it is the characteristic of an optimally functioning nervous system. For Whitman, it
is the beauty the reader finds in poetry and art that produces a salubrious effect. In what
might be termed “Maharishi’s Vedic Aesthetics,” art is not complete unless it contains
wholeness and elicits a response which is integrating and evolutionary for the individual
and society. Modern theorists, unfortunately, consider any form of transcendental aesthetics
as escapist, a turning away from history and the body. Maharishi Vedic Science
provides a model of the aesthetic response as the integration of mind and body, of the
timeless with the historical—a model which solves some of the questions of Whitman’s
aesthetic.
Against postmodern claims that transcendental aesthetic theories are both impractical
and “elitist,” Maharishi Vedic Science offers a practical and universal technique to
improve the creativity of the artist and the aesthetic awareness of the audience.
Whitman also considered the practicality of his poetry. He believed the rhythm and
sound of it would have the effect of bringing the listener back toward the Self. The
greatness of the aesthetic experience is finally the transformative potentiality it has for
the reader. Maharishi says at one point poetry can actually expand the awareness in a
practical way similar to the Transcendental Meditation® technique, though not as profoundly
(1974, p. 47).
Part I. Self-Referral Consciousness and the Levels of Language
Self-referral transcendental consciousness is the source of “Nature’s Government” and
the Self of every being in creation. Language, arising from the subtlest levels of consciousness,
is flexible enough to embody all the levels of Nature including the transcendental
level. Language thus has the power, when properly experienced and used, to put
the audience in the evolutionary flow of Nature.
Transcendentalist Self-Culture and Maharishi’s “Self-Referral”
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott,
and other New England Transcendentalist writers between 1836 and 1860, precursors of
Walt Whitman, felt that America was in a unique position to develop a literature at once
native and universal. They believed America’s diverse origins and cultures should be
reflected in its own literature and no longer mimic one tradition—the European.
7
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
America was ripe for a literature with a new voice, grounded in a nationalism which
welcomed many traditions. This new American culture, unique in the cultures of the
world, would also be a universal culture. It would speak of humanity’s supreme spiritual
quest, the quest for self-culture—the full unfoldment of the individual personality
based on knowledge of the Self, that transcendental aspect of the individual connected
to universal intelligence.
Thoreau describes a personal experience of this higher Self, what he called
“Genius” or the “Spectator,” in his journal for August 13, 1838: “If with closed ears and
eyes I consult consciousness for a moment—immediately are all walls and barriers dissipated.
. . . I am from the beginning—knowing no end, no aim. No sun illumines me,
for I dissolve all lesser lights in my own intenser and steadier light—I am a restful kernel
in the magazine of the universe” (1981, pp. 50–1). This experience of connecting
him to cosmic intelligence, his identity with “higher laws,” was what Thoreau felt gave
rise to his voice in Walden, the expression of an individuality at once American and universal.
Walt Whitman similarly reported the capacity to cease thinking and be in a
“state of high exalted musing . . . the objective world suspended or surmounted for a
while, & the powers in exaltation, freedom. . . . ” (“Workshop,” 1982, p. 21). Whitman
saw his Leaves of Grass as literally unifying his personality with his higher self. This
union, he felt, acted as a model for the spiritual integration of both the individual and
the nation.
Union is also at the heart of Maharishi Vedic Science, a science of the unity of Self
and how it can be systematically cultured in all people. This science finds that such
experiences as those of Whitman and Thoreau are analogous to experiences of “pure”
consciousness or “self-referral” consciousness. They point towards union with the Self.
Mentioning one characteristic of his union with his higher Self—Thoreau said he was
able to go beyond sensory experience and “consult” his own consciousness which he
found to be unbounded in time and space, part of the universal consciousness.
Maharishi describes pure consciousness, experienced during the Transcendental
Meditation technique, as consciousness in its simplest state, “self-referral” beyond sensory
data, complete within itself: “Consciousness coming back onto itself gains an integrated
state, because consciousness in itself is completely integrated. This is pure consciousness,
or transcendental consciousness” (1986, p. 25). Maharishi Vedic Science
also helps to clarify Thoreau’s experience of becoming “a restful kernel in the magazine
of the universe.” Maharishi explains that when experiencing self-referral consciousness,
one simultaneously experiences the Self of everything, the self-referral functioning of
Nature itself:
It is the self-referral activity of natural law that is responsible for absolute order in creation.
That self-referral activity cannot be hampered from outside. It is the most basic
performance in nature. It transcends all activity of natural law in the relative field, but
yet is always lively as the basis of the classical, physical world. It is the most refined
level of the quantum-mechanical activity of nature, from where absolute orderliness
controls, commands, and governs all affairs of the universe. This transcendent level of
nature’s functioning is the level of infinite correlation. (1986, p. 75)
8
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Maharishi has reenlivened the Vedic technologies for culturing transcendental, selfreferral
awareness to be lived as a permanent reality along with other states of consciousness—
waking, dreaming, and sleeping. Enlightenment, or life lived in “higher
states of consciousness,” he explains, is the ability to maintain transcendental self-referral
consciousness at all times, even with the senses engaged, an achievement that allows
one to be in tune with the organizing intelligence of Natural Law. The gradual process
of integrating self-referral consciousness with more active states of awareness can be
defined in distinct stages. In such states of integration, which are “the natural continuation
of human development beyond the stage of adult formal operations,” the individual
lives in harmony with Natural Law because it is experienced to be the same law upholding
every aspect of one’s own nature (1987, p. 91). In his commentary on the Bhagavad-
Gita, Maharishi defines the goal of personal growth as Unity Consciousness, a
state in which “complete integration of the Self with the mind is achieved.” In this
fullest state of human evolution, self-referral consciousness is lived on the level of mind
and perception so that one finally “sees every living being as supported by that Being
which is his own Self” (1975, pp. 181–2). Though not so systematically described as in
Vedic Science, integrated awareness is also what the Transcendentalists were seeking in
their pursuit of “self-culture” and Whitman in his “Personalism”—the development of
the whole person.
The Transcendentalists respected all cultural influences that could shed light upon
this drive for self-culture; they readily absorbed the transcendental philosophy of the
Romantic movement, but also Platonism, Neoplatonism, and, in translation, texts of
Vedic Literature, especially the Bhagavad-Gita. Bronson Alcott records in his journal
for May 10, 1846: “I read more of the Bhagvat Geeta and felt how surpassingly fine
were the sentiments. These, or selections from the book, should be included in a Bible
for Mankind” (1938, p. 180). Thoreau, equally ecstatic, claimed that from the Vedas
“One wise sentence is worth the state of Massachusetts many times over” (1990, p. 61).
Although it seems unlikely that Whitman read any Vedic literature before the first edition
of Leaves of Grass, he did later, and there are many parallels to the Vedas found in
his poetry (see Chari, 1964; Rajasekharaiah, 1970; Cowley, 1959; Nahal, 1988;
Nambiar, 1966; Sharma, 1988). His reading of Vedic literature no doubt ultimately contributed
to his belief in the relationship between poetry and Nature, the seeming equivalent
of Maharishi’s Natural Law.
In Harmony with Natural Law: “Nature’s Government”
Donald Pease asserts that Whitman’s belief in the power of natural law to regenerate
the country was more than mere philosophy: “Whitman wrote Leaves of Grass . . .
to return America to her basis in nature. For Whitman that meant making natural law
available as an experience, a resource for real rather than symbolic actions” (1980, pp.
119–20). Pease notes that Whitman’s natural law was not the Hobbesian “brutish” type,
but rather a larger regenerative intelligence which “revealed its designs through
mankind as well as his environment” (1987, p. 124). This regenerative element of natural
law in Whitman (1987, p. 131) is better understood by investigating the principle
9
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Maharishi identifies as the “self-referral” performance of Nature, a quantum level of
organization transcending Nature’s physical activity—the silent, orderly creative intelligence
coordinating all change in the universe. Maharishi calls this transcendent level of
Nature’s functioning “Nature’s Government”; it is the Unified Field of Nature, pure
intelligence, perceived in the self-referral state of human consciousness:
The absolute Creative Intelligence (the Government of Nature) eternally established in
its self-referral state, fully alert and awake, most spontaneously, most innocently administers
the universe, and spontaneously, most naturally, from within everything and
everyone, maintains the destiny of everything and everyone. . . . The absolute formula
for every government is to maintain alliance with Creative Intelligence—pure, selfreferral
intelligence . . . unified state of consciousness . . . through the process of transcending.
(1992, pp. 44–45)
A strong perception runs through Transcendentalist writings that Nature and human
consciousness are not two separate entities. Whitman said that the main intention of
Leaves of Grass was “To sing the Song of that law of average Identity, and of Yourself,
consistently with the divine law of the universal” (“Preface,” 1982, p. 1010). The
Transcendentalists also seem to have understood that self-referral was the way to attune
oneself to the principle of unity in nature, what Margaret Fuller calls the “central soul”:
Every relation, every gradation of nature is incalculably precious, but only to the soul
which is poised upon itself, and to whom no loss, no change, can bring dull discord, for
it is in harmony with the central soul. (1992, p. 312)
The central soul, or “Oversoul” according to Emerson, is
the wise silence; the universal beauty, to which every part and particle is equally related;
the eternal ONE. And this deep power in which we exist, and whose beatitude is all
accessible to us, is not only self-sufficing and perfect in any hour, but the act of seeing,
and the thing seen, the seer and the spectacle, the subject and the object are one. (“The
Oversoul,” 1979, p. 160)
Maharishi describes a unified state of self-referral in which the mind loses its sense
of duality and separation from the external object, an experience of knowingness in
which the knower (åishi), the process of knowing (DevatŒ), and the object known
(Chhandas) are perceived as one. The mind in a state of unity within itself—self-referral
(SaµhitŒ)—is in tune with the self-referral state of Nature’s Government, knowing its
creative intelligence to be the same as Nature’s. In integrated higher states of consciousness,
a mind fully infused with self-referral consciousness knows all beings to be nondifferentiated
from its own Being. Whitman’s poetry frequently speaks from the point
of view of non-difference. This view gives him delight because in the humblest creatures
he “see[s] in them and myself the same old law” (“Song of Myself,” 1980, pp.
14–15). Emerson, explaining why the American Scholar can understand nature, says it
is because the individual and nature function in the same circular or self-referral way:
What is nature to him? There is never a beginning, there is never an end to the inexplicable
continuity of this web of God, but always circular power returning into itself.
Therein it resembles his own spirit, whose beginning, whose ending he never can find—
so entire, so boundless. Far, too, as her splendors shine, system on system shooting like
rays, upward, downward, without centre, without circumference—in the mass and in the
10
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
particle nature hastens to render account of herself to the mind. (“The American
Scholar,” 1971, p. 54)
The Wealth of a Culture Is in Its Language
Alliance with Nature’s Government happens only when individual and universal
intelligence meet in the holistic value of Transcendental Consciousness where specific
impulses of Natural Law are united in a state of pure potentiality. Natural Law has two
distinct levels according to Maharishi Vedic Science—one that is holistic and universal
and coordinates the activity of the whole universe, and a more specific level that coordinates,
among other things, the climates and activities of localized areas:
The relationship between the universal aspect of natural law and the local, specific
aspects of natural law may be understood from the perspective of quantum mechanics in
modern physics. The quantum-mechanical level of reality represents the universal value
of natural law, in which all the laws of nature are lively. This quantum-mechanical level
becomes expressed on the classical level, in which certain specific aspects of natural law
are manifest. (1992, p. 10)
Whitman saw this same relationship between the universal and local operating
within a culture’s language. Because language embodies both cosmic and local expressions
of nature, its sound and rhythm rendered in poetry can marshal individual places
and spirits into the grand march of national, and even universal unity. Among his hopes
for the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass was a desire to heal divisions among Americans
by reminding them that “The soul of the nation . . . rejects none, it permits all” (1982, p.
26). To capture the multivalent voices of America, to bind them into one rhythmic
pulse, Whitman wrote long lines in an unrhymed, rhythmical speech, creating a new
form meant to mimic oral rather than literary styles (Hollis, 1983, p. 8). He hoped by
this informal and direct appeal to reach every American including uneducated laborers.
He believed that sincere speech spoken from “a developed harmonious soul” (1987, p.
20) would awaken the power “slumbering” in words to penetrate even closed minds
(“Vocalism,” 1980, p. 310). “The art of art,” he said, “the glory of expression and the
sunshine of the light of letters is simplicity” (1982, p. 13). His poetry would speak with
the “insouciance of the movements of animals and the unimpeachableness of the sentiment
of trees in the woods and grass by the roadside” (1982, p. 13). Whitman saw himself
as the nation’s “equalizer” who could “vivify” and unify the country with his incantations
(1982, p. 9):
Chants of the prairies,
Chants of the long-running Mississippi, and down to the Mexican sea,
Chants of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota,
Chants going forth from the centre from Kansas, and thence equidistant,
Shooting in pulses of fire ceaseless to vivify all . . . .
I will make a song for these States that no one State may under any
circumstances be subjected to another State,
And I will make a song that there shall be comity by day and by night
between all the States. . . . (“Starting From Paumanok,” 1980, pp. 273–275)
11
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Even this short excerpt gives a feeling for Whitman’s famous catalogue technique.
Names are so powerful, he believed, that a list of things, places, and people is enough to
evoke their presence and to put them harmoniously together, side by side. This passage,
furthermore, exemplifies the “performative” role of Whitman’s language. It performs an
illocutionary act—carrying out what it says as it says it: “I will make a song” means “As
I make this song I perform my promise to you.” Whitman thus demonstrates his belief
in the power of language to change things. C. Carroll Hollis points out that there are
more illocutionary acts in Whitman than in any other American or English poet, and that
these “speech acts” are the main stylistic feature of the early editions of Leaves (1980, p.
74).
In “An American Primer,” a collection of notes for a lecture on language, Whitman
said, “All the greatness of any land, at any time, lies folded in its names. . . . Thus does
history, in all things, hang around a few names” (1987, p. 31). He therefore believed
that language could embody the qualities of things and people it named:
Great is Language—it is the mightiest of the sciences, It is the fulness, color, form,
diversity of the earth, and of men and women, and of all qualities and processes; It is
greater than wealth—it is greater than buildings, ships, religions, paintings, music.
(1987, p. 392)
Whitman responded to the call of Emerson and the earlier generation of Transcendentalist
writers for an authentic American poetry which was not a derivative of Europe.
Emerson no doubt inspired Whitman (Gatta, 1985, p. 5) with such statements as, the
poet “stands among partial men for the complete man. . . . The poet is the sayer, the
namer, and represents beauty. He is a sovereign, and stands on the centre” (“The Poet,”
1982, v. 3, p. 5). Whitman took his cue from Emerson and the earlier Tran-scendentalists,
creating an American idiom out of his vision of the country’s language. He
believed the wealth of a culture is in its language. Whitman saw Leaves of Grass as a
“language experiment,” an “attempt to give the spirit, the body, the man, new words,
new potentialities of speech. . . . The new world, the new times, the new peoples, the
new vista, need a tongue . . . ” (1987, p. ix).
A Language Experiment Based on Natural Law
The Transcendentalist writers held in common two important premises that led to a
general theory of language: 1) they believed in an essential unity of human consciousness
with universal law; and 2) in the ability of language to express that unity. To these
writers language could bridge the gap between matter and spirit—to embody universal
truth and temporal truth at the same time. Gay Wilson Allen points out that Whitman’s
theory of language is basically Emersonian: words are symbols of things in nature, but
nature itself is only a symbol of a spiritual reality transcending the world of the senses
(1987, pp. 243–4). This “correspondence theory” of language, which posits a relationship
between the physical and spiritual planes, is elaborated in this paper’s next section.
Here, it can simply be noted that Whitman reconciled the two levels of existence by
insisting that Nature and human nature include more subtle levels of reality which can
be brought to light and unified through the poet’s skill.
12
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Whitman also felt that Nature was too narrowly defined as mere physical law; it
had a spiritual dimension as well (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 984). An expanded
definition of Nature, he argued, must be the basis of poetic language: “the true idea of
Nature, long absent, must, above all, become fully restored, enlarged, and must furnish
the pervading atmosphere to poems, and the test of all high literary and aesthetic compositions”
(“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 984). When the full range of Nature is
embodied in language then “great literature penetrates all” and has the power to change
human conditions (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 933). This spiritual dimension of
Nature furthermore bolstered Whitman’s political vision. America, Whitman said,
would evolve through three stages of democracy: it had already surpassed its political
foundation and was fast outgrowing, he hoped, the material stage of the nineteenth century.
The future destiny of the country thus lay in its spiritual obligation to help every
person realize his or her divine Self (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, pp. 942, 960–1,
976–978).
Herbert Levine asserts that “Song of Myself,” the masterpiece of Leaves of Grass,
is a model for reuniting a country divided over issues like slavery and expansionism.
The poem, he says, demonstrates in its own structure, union, disunion, and reunion,
using Whitman as an example of how “it was possible to unify a highly stressed self
and, by analogy, an increasingly divided country” (1987, p. 579). Whitman said in
“Democratic Vistas” he personally felt the opposite sides of democracy harmonized in
his own awareness, a harmony he wanted to present to the people “to be read only in
such oneness” (1982, p. 930). Someone had to create unity to show it could be done.
Whitman, then, is one of those great poets, who as Bernice Slote puts it, has “a sense of
the cosmos and who in their art perform the ritual of union” (1982, p. 954). Jeffrey
Steele agrees, calling “Song of Myself” a “psychological ritual” that “constructs a central
American archetype—an image of the self liberated within a field of expansive
vision” (1987, p. 67). He maintains that we don’t learn ideas from “Song of Myself,”
but just the process of reading it “activates a model of being that energizes us as we
move through the poem” (1987, p. 73).
The reformative scope of Whitman’s language experiment makes sense within the
context of Maharishi Vedic Science. Maharishi’s explanation of the self-referral basis of
Nature’s creativity in pure consciousness and the human ability to experience that pure
consciousness is a framework for understanding how a nation could connect itself to the
regenerative power of Nature. Maharishi states:
Creativity is the source of all culture. The infinite potential of creativity lies in the state
of pure intelligence—unmanifest, unbounded, absolute. . . . As pure consciousness is the
home of all the laws of nature, any nation whose life is grounded in pure consciousness
will live the full potential of its culture and will enjoy the support of all the laws of
nature. (1978, pp. 317–18)
Maharishi’s Technologies of Consciousness available today for realigning a culture
with Natural Law are based on the ability to enliven pure consciousness in a whole
nation or area (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1995, pp. 178–203). In the absence of such
ancient Vedic knowledge for keeping a civilization strong, art has been one of the
means of purifying collective consciousness, allowing the audience to “remember” and
13
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
turn back to its connection with the cosmos through the aesthetic experience. It is
through language, through his poetry, that Whitman would lead the nation back to this
source of creativity to which Maharishi alludes. Perhaps the most inspiring aspect of
Leaves of Grass, then, is this reenactment of linking ourselves with cosmic creativity.
Indeed, the individual poems show it is inevitable in the grand march of evolution that
humanity will take its place as God’s partners, as he says in “Passage to India,” through
the voyage of the “mind’s return, / To reason’s early paradise, / Back, back to wisdom’s
birth, to innocent intuitions, / Again with fair creation” (1980, p. 571). Humanity is now
estranged from nature, Whitman continues, but “Nature and Man shall be disjoin’d and
diffused no more” when “All these separations and gaps shall be taken up and hook’d
and link’d together” by the poet-hero (1980, p. 568).
For most, such an undertaking would be beyond comprehension, but Whitman
knew that his plan for uniting America was more than mere declaration. He saw that he
must “hook” things together with language, “fann’d by the breath of Nature” in such a
way that people could through his poetic hints experience intimacy with natural law for
themselves (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 992). He felt that “The greatest poet does not
moralize”; he works through “indirection,” through the suggestive and holistic power of
language “which leaps overhead” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 992) to the deepest
reality, that reality that eludes language but can be experienced in silence (1982, p.
1152). Whitman’s theory led him to see language as a tool for healing when it comes
from the mind of a great poet—a “language shaper.” In An American Primer, his fullest
statement about language, he said “Names are magic.—One word can pour such a flood
through the soul” (1987, p. 18). But words, he emphasized, could not be arbitrarily chosen:
“Names are a test of the esthetic and of spirituality.—A delicate something there is
in the right name—an undemonstrable nourishment that exhilarates the soul” (1987, p.
34).
Consciousness (or “Presence”) in Language
Whitman believed it was not language alone that influenced an audience; it was
also the distinct voice of the poet imbedded in language. The “flood” pouring through
the words to the listener was the writer’s “presence” inherent in the words, what Vedic
Science would call the consciousness of the writer in language. Did Whitman actually
believe he could encode his poems with his presence so even after his death they would
continue to carry his life, his force, even in print? Like many Romantic poets, this is
exactly what he believed. Whitman felt he was recording his voice to be heard by future
generations, just as he heard the presence of past poets. Michael Heim, a philosopher of
textuality, reminds today’s readers that unlike electronic, computer-generated texts, the
printed book traditionally assumes a metaphysical dimension. The book “enhances the
sense of private contemplative space”(1987, p. 186) and it “ultimately depends on a
deeper level of stasis, of contemplative awareness” behind it (1987, pp. 70–71).
Treating Leaves of Grass as an embodiment of his own subjectivity, then, Whitman was
in keeping with the nineteenth-century assumptions about the capacity of great literature
to preserve the human voice, by the “power of the right voice . . . that touches the soul,”
14
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
especially those voices recorded from the world’s great oral cultures, like the Greek
(1982, p. 1269). Thomas Byers comments on just how large was Whitman’s belief in
the power of language:
The principle of correspondence that relates self, word, and world is the projection of
passion for a sense of oneness, of being at home in the cosmos. Whitman’s confidence
in the perceptive, creative, and communicative powers of language affirms above all a
faith that speech can bridge the gaps of mere existence—that it can call world and self
together into the common space and the moment of plenitude, where reality is what is
here now. (1989, p. 42)
Postmodern language theory, the critical apparatus presently en vogue, however,
denies that language possesses presence, believing instead that the writing on the page
is “freed” from the “tyranny” of any single voice or consciousness. Postmodern critics
have been quick to deconstruct Whitman’s personal “voice” in Leaves of Grass in order
to unmask it as an illusion created by the poet—a mere trick of ventriloquism (Bruder,
1986). Postmodernists believe the written word is an autonomous play of signification
that points to the absence of both author and a transcendental signified (the presence of
the Self and/or absolute meaning). The author’s consciousness, say contemporary theorists,
is lost in a maze of language, an arbitrary system of signs that has no relation to
the speaking subject or the objects represented. Postmodernism, therefore, undermines
the position that words can contain either the stable presence of a writer or any form of
non-changing, absolute meaning.
The postmodern view of language focuses instead on the cultural processes which
create language systems, rejecting any metaphysical or transcendental foundation for
language and culture. In this view, language is a social phenomenon in which sound and
meaning are fractured within the word. Meaning, postmodernists argue, can never be
unified within the word; rather, it is always the shifting product of an indeterminate
“play.” Since today’s critical theorists view absolute meaning as a closed system, indeterminacy
is felt to bring freedom to reading. The cost of being “free,” however, is that
texts become “unreadable”; they continuously deconstruct themselves like so many
waves of interference. This method of reading texts, points out Allen Thiher, “leaves no
justification for a belief in the imagistic power of poetic revelation in language” (1984,
p. 73). He adds, “The postmodern lives with a kind of nostalgia for the modernist belief
that language is rooted in the essence of things” (1984, p. 97). One reason for this nostalgia
is the loss of the transforming power of the aesthetic experience, the experience of
bliss found at the deeper levels of language that stirs the consciousness of a refined
reader. The aha! experience of literature comes with the revelation of a transcendental
meaning which is not, as postmodernists fear, a closed and fixed meaning; it is instead
the unbounded presence inherent in the sound and structure of poetic language.
Vedic language theory explained in Maharishi Vedic Science can address these
contradictory views of language by offering a model that allows for both authorial presence
and reader freedom. Maharishi has explained that different experiences of language
arise from different states of the writer’s and listener’s consciousness. In the following
discussion, this paper will examine Whitman’s theory of language with the
Vedic concepts of consciousness and levels of language to support Whitman’s claims
15
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
for a continued personal presence in language. Maharishi Vedic Science asserts that
there is a correlation between name and form, or sound and meaning, at subtler states of
awareness, most evident in the case of Vedic sounds. The idea that a thing’s essence is
inherent in its name is one of the most ancient and common beliefs about the power of
language. In Western culture, writers from Plato to the Modernists have spoken of language’s
ability to embody what it describes. This theory assumes for language the existence
of a transcendental signified, a transcendental meaning to words. From a common
sense point of view, however, one notices that language changes as culture changes, that
meaning is relative. Given this pragmatic reality, Whitman’s assertion of a word’s transcendental
value is challenged by contemporary critics.
In rebuttal, Thomas Byers points out that a language’s meaning is capable of being
both relative and absolute (1989, p. 21). However, it is left up to Maharishi to explain
how such a condition is possible. Maharishi describes absolute meaning not as a fixed
intellectual interpretation but as a meaning known within an absolute state of consciousness
which includes both knower and known as a unity. In this unity, meaning is not
separate from the knower; the ultimate “meaning” of any word or object is the absolute
unbounded awareness of the knower which becomes the context revealing the absolute
status of the known as well. The SaµhitŒ or dynamic unity of åishi, DevatŒ, and
Chhandas (knower, process of knowing, and known) is the absolute meaning. Other
meanings have validity but must be historical, partial, changing. Historical meaning
exists as the “play” within the absolute structure of a listener’s Transcendental
Consciousness, within the Self. Transcendental or absolute meaning is, in terms of
Vedic Science, the dynamics of consciousness, the infinite frequency of the unified state
of consciousness containing the potential of plurality, rather than the more restricted
definition of a fixed monolithic meaning employed by the postmodernists (Haney,
1981). The importance of defining “transcendental signified” in this more expanded
manner will become apparent in the following discussion of Whitman’s “levels” of language.
The Correspondence Theory of Language
Transcendentalist writers understood language to be a bridge between matter and
spirit. That is, there is for them a correspondence between sound and matter. Language,
they believed, could in some way express the natural living law which unifies the universe
and human intelligence (Gura, 1979). The Transcendentalists read the Vedic
Literature, so it is not surprising there exists parallel ideas between them on the power
of language; but the concept of the correlation of name and form (that the name of a
thing contains the form or presence of the object named) was inherent, in a less precise
way, in the western correspondence theory. Emerson says, “the poet is the Namer, or
Language-maker, naming things sometimes after their appearance, sometimes after their
essence, and giving to every one its own name and not another’s, thereby rejoicing the
intellect” (“The Poet,” 1983, v. 3 p. 13).
The writer as “legislator” or Namer has a venerable tradition, from the ancient
Greeks to the Renaissance, from the Romantics to modern fantasy. As Plato’s Cratylus
16
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
puts it, “he who knows names knows also the things which are expressed by them”
(“Cratylus” v. 1 p. 224). This is the belief that words are referential and have stable
transcendental meanings; they are not simply determined arbitrarily by history. Signifier
(word) and signified (meaning), the components of the word prised apart by the postmodernists,
are united by nature. For Romantic writers of the nineteenth century, “a
language of nature” meant, as James McCusick explains, that “Natural phenomena are
the privileged example of natural signs; they signify, by a metonymy of cause-andeffect,
the Creator, who is both their ground and origin. Imaginative discourse is an
extension of this paradigm into human language. . . . ” (1986, p. 26).
Transcendental poets, therefore, could read God’s book, the “Book of Nature,” and
take natural objects as a divine symbolic language. They followed Emerson’s thought
that “The Universe is the externisation of the soul. . . . The earth, and the heavenly bodies,
physics, and chemistry, we sensually treat, as if they were self-existent; but these
are the retinue of that Being we have” (“The Poet,” 1983, v. 3 p. 9). It made sense that
the objects of nature must also be the language of the human spirit. Whitman therefore
takes his main symbol in Leaves of Grass from nature: “A child said What is the grass?
fetching it to me with full hands” (1980, p. 6), and based on his ability to read the
underlying connection between nature and himself, Whitman’s seer persona offers his
answer: “I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out of hopeful green stuff woven.
/ Or I guess it is the handkerchief of the Lord, / A scented gift and remembrancer
designedly dropt, / Bearing the owner’s name someway in the corners, that we may see
and remark, and say Whose?” (1980, pp. 6–7).
The Language of Nature:
The Continuum of Consciousness, Language, and Matter
Isobel Armstrong points out that for nineteenth-century writers language was not
fixed or dead, but as Blake termed it, a “living form” which was a “model of the structure
of consciousness or being itself” (1982, p. xiii). Poetry could embody living patterns
of sound, built from and maintained in consciousness, like Tennyson’s Camelot
which was “built by music / therefore never built at all / And therefore built forever”
(1973, pp. 272–274). Catherine Albanese states that the American Transcendentalists
saw “kinetic” language as capable of expressing the transformation of the life force
itself (1988, pp. 22–23). James P. Warren traces in detail the influence of nineteenthcentury
linguistics on Whitman, especially the “organic” language theory which posits
the evolution of language as a reflection of the evolution of human cultures (1990. pp.
12–33).
It is not surprising then that Whitman saw his poetry as an expression of the living
consciousness of his age: “Slowly, sternly, inevitably, move the souls of the earth, and
names are its signs” (1987, p. 12). Whitman believed that “The great tidal movements
in a nation’s life are repeated in great tidal movements in its language” (1984, p. 1627).
The English language in an America that was new and vast was bound to respond to the
importance of place. For instance, the Native American words for places were more
suitable than European names because they were fashioned from the living creative
17
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
sounds of Nature: “All aboriginal names sound good. . . . They are honest words—they
give the true length, breadth, depth. They all fit. Mississippi—the word winds with
chutes—it rolls a stream three thousand miles long” (1987, p. 18). These native words
Whitman called “natural breaths”: “sounds of rain and winds, calls as of birds and animals
in the woods, syllabled to us for names . . .” (“Starting from Paumanok,” 1980, p.
287). Whitman also suggests that language and physical nature are similar in make-up
and evolution: “The science of language has large and close analogies in geological science,
with its ceaseless evolution, its fossils, and its numberless submerged layers and
hidden strata, the infinite go-before of the present. Or, perhaps Language is more like
some vast living body, or perennial body of bodies” (“November Boughs,” 1980, p.
1170).
Maharishi makes the connection between language and consciousness especially
clear when he analyzes the word “literature” as a “flow of letters” and then explains a
letter as a “fluctuation of consciousness” (1976). Maharishi Vedic Science upholds language
capable of embodying the qualities of the objects it names by explaining the relationship
of consciousness, language, and matter as a continuum of vibration, from subtle
to gross levels of creation. Language is the bridge or means by which, if one can
experience all the levels of language (described below), one’s consciousness can participate
in the flow or fluctuation of Nature’s creative process itself from unmanifest to
manifest.
This process of language’s manifestation, Maharishi states, has its origin in
Transcendental Consciousness, the Unified Field of Natural Law. This is the unmanifest
level of the continuum which is continually fluctuating within itself at an infinite frequency;
thus, Maharishi calls this primordial fluctuation “self-referral” (1986, pp.
25–31). What is produced by this fluctuation are the primordial sounds or wave patterns
of creation called “Veda,” the expression of the fundamental laws of both matter and
consciousness, as Ken Chandler explains:
According to Maharishi’s exposition of the Veda, the sequential emergence of the
diverse laws of nature from the unified field can be directly experienced in the field of
consciousness as a sequence of sounds; these are presented in the sequential emergence
of phonological structures of the Vedic texts. Veda is just the structure of the self-interacting
dynamics through which the unified field gives rise to the diverse expressions of
natural law. (1987, p. 15)
These primordial or Vedic sounds Maharishi calls “The Language of Nature in
which Law is expressed in its totality” (1995, p. 55). At the level of this primordial fluctuation
within the Unified Field of Natural Law, the form of matter is inherent in but as
yet unmanifest in the sound structure. “Phonemes have a wave form and so does the
object,” explains Maharishi. “The growth of speech from consciousness is parallel to
the growth of form in matter. . . . The building blocks of speech analyzed [phonology]
are parallel to the building blocks of physical existence [physics]. Physics and phonology
can be the same because the impulses which constitute the object and the sound have
the same form” (1972a). The phenomenon of namarupa, according to Maharishi, has its
origin in the continuing process of creation from the unmanifest fluctuations of Veda,
which can be known in self-referral consciousness. Both matter and language,
18
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Maharishi concludes, can be analyzed as quantum wave functions, as stages of the
manifestations of primordial sound, and therefore both matter and language find their
common origin in the Unified Field of pure consciousness (1972a). The Language of
Nature, existing in everyone’s silent pure consciousness, is “the Language of Veda, the
mother of all languages” (1994, p. 228).
Vedic Language Theory Based on States of Consciousness
Maharishi’s exposition of Vedic language theory describes the continuum of Nature
embodied in language from its most abstract quantum level to the most concrete classical
level. Each level of language corresponds to a level of Natural Law, and one’s experience
of language depends upon the refinement of one’s consciousness; it takes a flexible
consciousness to experience the full range of language, the full range of Natural
Law. Maharishi’s commentary on the Vedic grammarian Panini divides speech, the levels
of language, into four stages from grossest to most subtle (1972a):
1) Baikhari: language experienced by the senses; spoken speech.
2) MadhyamŒ: mental or intellectual speech; duality of speaker separated from the
object described. Because there is a gap between subject and object, the subject’s name
for the object is arbitrary.
3) Pashyanti: the finest impulse of speech. The intuitional wholeness behind speech
without the rigidly defined intellectual meaning. This is the finest feeling level of language
where unity exists between word and the experience described.
4) ParŒ: the vibrant, silent, preverbal source of language. In this unspoken level of language
there is no subject-object duality; it is a state of unbounded consciousness. To
experience language on this level, says Maharishi, is to experience the faint impulse of
the word and all the qualities contained in the potential form within one’s own
unbounded awareness. This level of consciousness is the transcendental Self which is
the ground Being of all objects. (1972a)
The transcendental signified, where word is unified within itself so that name and
form correspond and the listener can intuit the full presence of meaning, is experienced
only on the Pashyanti and ParΠlevels of language. The MadhyamΠand Baikhari levels
represent the grosser historical context of speech and contain a gap between signifier
and signified, a gap created as the word takes concrete shape in the speaker’s mind.
These four levels of speech represent different states of consciousness, different experiences
of language: ParŒ, transcendental consciousness; Pashyanti, the border between
transcendence and historical awareness, integrating both together in an intuitional
whole; MadhyamΠand Baikhari, ordinary waking consciousness in which objects are
perceived as “other.” Maharishi points out that the range of a single word is the whole
range of life. Modern linguistics is thus only partially correct when it describes the arbitrary
functioning of language in waking state consciousness: a condition that is histori-
19
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
cally determined and always changing (Orme-Johnson, 1987, p. 345 and Haney. 1981,
p. 426). This arbitrariness that postmodernists perceive only corresponds to the
MadhyamΠand Baikhari levels of speech. In more subtle, unified states of awareness,
those that correspond to the ParΠand Pashyanti levels, however, this is not the case;
language has its “timeless” aspect as well, as great poets and writers have always intuitively
known.
The most important thing about the Vedic model is that it posits ParΠas the source
of the grosser levels of speech. This is the self-referral level in which the knower can
know the object most truthfully as an aspect of one’s own nature. This is the fulfillment
of the Transcendentalist aspiration for self-culture, knowledge of the full potential of
name and knower together. Maharishi has said that experiencing the full range of
speech connects the surface of life to the depths of life in the listener resulting in integration
of all aspects of the mind (1976).
Levels of Language in Whitman
Whitman is one of those poets who seems to have understood that language has levels.
If Leaves of Grass is a “language experiment,” surely one of Whitman’s experiments
is to get his readers to feel different levels of sound and meaning, including the
transcendental level—the source of both sound and meaning. That there is an absolute
meaning to words Whitman has no doubt: “The true words do not fail, for motion does
not fail . . . the day and night do not fail,” he says, asserting that “Underneath the ostensible
sounds” of words are the unfailing Laws of Nature (“Song of the Rolling Earth,”
19878, pp. 267–8). The absoluteness of words is not in their fixed intellectual meaning,
but in their latent Being. Therefore, the whole truth of words cannot be apprehended by
intellectual understanding: “The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing, /
A book separate, not link’d with the rest nor felt by the intellect, / But you ye untold
latencies will thrill to every page” (“Shut Not Your Doors,” 1987, p. 456). The latent
meaning in words he calls “the drift,” the feeling or presence of words. The drift is not
just “subtext,” it is intentional and primary text; it is the real transcendental meaning
beyond the sound of the words. Words become more dynamic and truthful when their
“inaudible” suggestive values are enlivened, first by the skill of the poet, then by the
reader’s own sensitivity. Whitman thus implies that one can touch Natural Law (“those
inaudible words of the earth”) only through the drift of words which is “subtle, untransmissable
by print” (“Rolling Earth,” 1987, pp. 266–7).
In terms of Vedic language theory, Whitman’s “drift” could be likened to the
Pashyanti level of language in which the listener experiences simultaneously the historical
context of language along with a degree of timeless “indeterminacy,” a condition
that allows for the listener’s participation in unbounded meaning. There also exists in
Whitman’s poetry something like the ParŒ level of Vedic language theory. ParŒ,
Maharishi explains, occurs in the state of pure silent awareness, in the Unified Field of
consciousness where there is no subject-object duality, just Being vibrating within itself
in the SaµhitŒ of åishi, DevatŒ, and Chhandas. Whitman knows the state of silent
awareness to be the source of language and yet it is unsayable: “There is in me—I do
20
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
not know what it is . . . it is without name—it is a word unsaid. It is not in any
dictionary, utterance, symbol. . . . It is not chaos or death—it is form, union, plan—it is
eternal life—it is Happiness” (1987, p. 81). This is a silence which although unsayable
can be nevertheless “read” as form, union, plan, and it is read within the Self, what
Whitman called “the real Me.” This experience of silence is not historical, for time
stops as the signifying process touches the source of the signifying capability itself. The
historical dimension of the unsaid word is embedded in ParŒ, but only in seed form
within the context of the unbounded Self, that Self that Whitman claimed was “Apart
from the pulling and hauling . . . Both in and out of the game and watching and wondering
at it” (“Song of Myself,” 1987, p. 5). In “A Riddle Song” Whitman encourages the
reader to guess this riddle of silence: “That which eludes this verse and any verse, /
Unheard by sharpest ear . . . Open but still a secret, the real of the real . . .” (1987, p.
691).
In the ParŒ experience of language, the ultimate referent of every word—the transcendental
signified—is the silent Unified Field of one’s own pure consciousness.
Maharishi explains that in the reading experience it is the process of self-referral that
creates bliss: “this reference to the Self in everything makes reading enjoyable” (1976).
Whitman similarly claimed to read everything in creation as his real “Self” (“Song of
Myself,” 1987). For him, the truth is both plural—“all truths wait in all things” (Leaves
40)—and yet unitary—“a knit of identity” (1987, p. 3)—and, he can know them both
because he is “Walt Whitman, a kosmos” (1987, p. 31). This paradox of diversity in
unity only makes sense as an experience of expanded consciousness.
The silent presence in language unifying all meaning within the listener’s Self is an
experience of the subtler levels of speech, as Whitman well knew. He said the poet
could only “hint” at such experience; the audience had to solve this riddle on its own;
readers had their part to do. They had to “come to poets on equal terms” (1982, p. 14).
Maharishi notes that a word has a meaning at every level of consciousness and that the
experience of that word will be different in different states of consciousness (1971b).
That means that meanings at deeper levels can only be known by someone who has
access to them. Vedic Literature issues such a warning: “The åichas (verses) of åk
Veda . . . are sustained . . . in the collapse of unbounded intelligence onto its own point.
. . . He whose awareness is not open to this field, what can the åichas accomplish for
him?” (1994, pp. 170–174) Thus, the transcendental signified on the level of the Vedic
hymns does not reside in written or spoken words but as an impulse of knowledge cognized
in unbounded or Transcendental Consciousness.
Whitman conceived of a concept similar to transcendental meanings existing within
the Self: “Were you thinking that those were the words, those upright lines? those
curves, angles, dots? / No, those are not the words, the substantial words are in the
ground and sea / They are in the air, they are in you” (“Rolling Earth,” Leaves, pp.
265–6). The transcendental meaning is the cognition of an underlying field of the full
potentiality of meaning and sound, including the play of difference, latent and waiting
to be experienced in each person as he or she reads or speaks. Whitman warns the
would-be poet in his 1855 Preface to Leaves of Grass that s/he needs to be open to the
transcendental field of life as well as the historical. He says if s/he is not qualified—“if
21
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
to him is not opened the eternity which gives similitude to all periods and locations . . .
and which is the bond of time . . . let him merge in the general run and wait his development”
(1982, pp. 23–4).
Language is thus a powerful tool for unifying a democracy because it can “leap
overhead” and invoke the common ground between all people and things, enlivening
the transcendental signified. This experience Whitman thought of as spiritual democracy,
an illumination of both the object and subject and consisting of the same underlying
unity of each. Words possessing this transcendent basis could therefore nudge a reader
beyond the surface; they could be a means for self-culture: “The words of the true
poems give you more than the poems, / They give you to form for yourself poems, religions,
. . . and everything else . . . Whom they take they take into space to behold the
birth of stars . . . ” (“Song of the Answerer,” 1982, p. 143).
Maharishi also profoundly relates the transcendental basis of poetry with the transcendental
basis of democracy. Both poetry and government, he shows, are patterns
originating in the unmanifest structure of Natural Law. This structure or blueprint of
Nature is contained in the verses and rhythms of Veda, he explains. While the Vedic
Literature contained in books is a manifest transcription of an oral tradition, Veda
itself—the essence of Vedic Literature—is not known by the words on the page. Veda
is the preverbal unmanifest sound of Natural Law known only in pure consciousness.
This “Language of Nature” gives rise to all forms in Nature. Nature’s Government
resides therefore in the silent structuring patterns of these primordial sounds that
Maharishi calls “the Constitution of the Universe.” The Constitution of the Universe is
not a written document but rather the pattern of Natural Law lively within the Self of
each person and in every atom of creation. There is, then, no differentiation between the
administrator and the administered because the source of Nature’s Government is the
Self: “This is the ideal of democracy at the unmanifest basis of creation from where the
infinite diversity of the universe is administered with perfect orderliness” (1992,
pp. 21–22).
Maharishi’s translation of a verse from the TaittirÁya Upanishad explains this ideal
democracy and reminds one of Whitman’s Transcendentalist politics: Tat s¨ishtwŒ tad
evŒ nuprŒvishat (“The Self is administering itself”) (1992, pp. 21–22). There is infinite
participation within the Self, infinite correlation of all interests, and all possibilities lively
there. This transcendental basis of democracy and transcendental basis of poetry are
identical with the transcendental basis of Natural Law, found not outside but inside
every citizen. Similarly, Whitman thought that if the transcendental level of natural law
could be enlivened in his readers through poetry, the spiritual phase of democracy could
be triggered on a large scale—a profound and subtle vision of how to realign a culture
to Nature through an expanded understanding and experience of the levels of language.
Whitman tried to hint, to give some flavor of these levels to his readers, though he realized
the readers themselves had to be equal to such an experience. Whitman’s enthusiasm
for the power of language could hardly be contained:
Yes! Language is indeed alive! Primordial creation and manifestation of the mind,
Language throbs with the pulses of our life. This is the wondrous babe, begotten of the
blended love of spirit and of matter—physical, mystical, the Sphinx! Through speech
man realizes and incarnates himself. (1984, p. 1651)
22
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
The Evolution of Language According to Whitman
Time is but the stream I go a-fishing in. I drink at it; but while I drink I see the sandy
bottom and detect how shallow it is. Its thin current slides away, but eternity remains.”
(Thoreau, 1971, p. 98).
Though Whitman spoke of the timeless, absolute basis of language, he nevertheless
was quite aware of the cultural changes taking place in the English language in nineteenth-
century America, and, in fact, embraced the flux as part of his poetic theory.
Whitman accepted change as a part of the divine plan for the advancement of the human
race. He adopted the Darwinian theory of biological evolution, but like many other
nineteenth-century writers viewed it in a religious light: he felt that human beings were
evolving into a more spiritual species (Wong, 1988). Since Whitman believed evolution
to be the law of Nature, he thought language must follow the same law (1987,
pp. 8–12). He thought English was especially suited to be the poetic language of a spiritual
democracy due to its ability to absorb creative influences and therefore keep up
with the unique American experience:
[English] is the most capacious tongue of all—full of ease, definiteness and power—full
of sustenance.—An enormous treasure-house . . . chock full with so many contributions
from the north and from the south, from Scandanavia, from Greece and Rome—from
Spaniards, Italians and the French. . . . America owes immeasurable respect and love to
the past . . . but by far the greatest inheritance is the English language—so long in growing—
so fitted. (1987, p. 31)
Whitman felt that language is a dynamic process of growth, but that its changes are
orderly and purposeful. He believed the new words coming into usage, for instance scientific
words, were not accidental but prompted by the changing needs of the culture.
However, this concept of a historically developing language appears to conflict with the
correspondence theory of language where name and form are essentially correlated.
Nineteenth-century authors, challenged by the rapid changes of the industrial revolution
and the loss of traditional values, looked for a way to resolve this conflict by seeing
change as a “development” towards some cosmic purpose. Organic theories, such as
those of German philologists like Humboldt, also attempted to account for change by
searching for a unity that underlies a language’s diversity and growth (Warren, 1990,
p. 13).
In a similar way, Thomas Carlyle, the Victorian mythmaker of the post-romantic
era who influenced the thinking of American Transcendentalists, explained cultural
change through his “clothes” philosophy (Weisbuch 1986; Price 1990). Borrowing a
metaphor from the Germans, Carlyle compared the ever-changing world to clothes worn
over a spiritual essence that forever remained constant. Thus, language could change,
cultures could change, but Eternity remained unaltered. In this scheme, language is “the
garment of thought” even as Nature is “the garment of God” (1987, pp. 57, 44). The
making of new cultural clothes in every generation need not be frightening, Carlyle
believed, since they are but a contemporary expression of perennial truths. And language
for the Transcendentalists and Whitman is the means for making the eternal concrete
and historical.
23
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Primordial Poetry and the “Songs of Nations”
Emerson agreed with Carlyle that “Each age . . . must write its own books”; each
age must find the eternal truth but discover it in its own language (“The American
Scholar,” 1971, p. 56). At the same time, Emerson felt that all writing was only a partial
capturing of some primordial poetry:
For poetry was all written before time was, and whenever we are so finely organized
that we can penetrate into that region where the air is music, we hear those primal warblings,
and attempt to write them down, but we lose ever and anon a word, or a verse,
and substitute something of our own, and thus miswrite the poem. The men of more delicate
ear write down these cadences more faithfully, and these transcripts, though imperfect,
become the songs of the nations. (“The Poet,” 1983, pp. 3, 5–6)
In this passage Emerson asserts an ancient divine language which humanity can no
longer hear. In it he avoids the negative Biblical implications of a human fall. He
locates instead an epoch in which the very air was music, and from this ancient time of
human perfection he attempts to connect the imperfect poetry of modernity—“the song
of the nations”—to the ideal, “primal warblings” that existed before time. The link
between these two periods is “the men of more delicate ear,” those sensitive individuals
who can hear the ancient music and write it in what Carlyle would call the clothes of the
clime—for Emerson, a specific American literature. Expressing a common Transcendentalist
view that Whitman shared, Emerson believed each age and place must write its
own poetry in order to “reattach” every corner and moment of creation to the nonchanging
eternal.
Whitman said one only had to travel in the American midwest to see how irrelevant
and “cramped” European poetry is for the American (“Specimen Days,” 1982, p. 866).
Each nation must have its own specific culture to preserve and vitalize itself, especially
through “national, original archetypes in literature” (1982, p. 972). The national literature
exhibits a country’s “particular modes of universal attributes” (1982, p. 973). Each
poet displays the “birthmark” of that specific time. Whitman claimed his birthmark was
the American Civil War and the expansionist America of the nineteenth century
(“Backward Glance,” 1982, p. 660). Each culture, however, has a duty to preserve the
world’s wisdom in its own literature. Whitman calls the books from the past great civilizations
“little ships . . . bearing its freight so dear—dearer than pride—dearer than
love. All the best experience of humanity, folded, saved, freighted to us here. Some of
these tiny ships we call Old and New Testament, Homer, Aeschylus, Plato, Juvenal . . . ”
(“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, pp. 972–3).
Language records differences of time and place in its surface grammar. But
Whitman also thought a universal or “deep structure” lay beneath the surface structure
of languages that allowed common understanding between people of different dialects.
He expresses this in a prose fragment which became the basis of the poem “Song of the
Answerer”:
No two have exactly the same language, and the great translator and joiner of the whole
is the poet. He has the divine grammar of all tongues and says indifferently and alike,
How are you friend? to the President in the midst of his cabinet, and Good day my
brother, to Sambo, among the hoes of the sugar field, and both understand him and
know that his speech is right. (Hollis, 1983, p. 92)
24
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
What makes widely different people know the poet’s speech is “right” is the preverbal
unmanifest “divine grammar,” the transcendental signified or meaning intuited
beneath individual idioms. The particular words matter, but what matters more is that
they become vehicles for the transcendental meaning which the poet can invoke and the
audience can feel. The Transcendentalist writers frequently spoke of truths, myths, language
or “primal warblings” of which their writings were but manifestations in the present
age. Such writing uses cultural language but is not dependent on the historical past
or present; truth is merely rediscovered in each epoch in a fresh way. The Transcendentalists
insisted that truth is not imprisoned in some particular time but always available
as long as the artist knows “the divine grammar.” There is, says Whitman, a common
universal language underlying all specific tongues: “A great observation will detect
sameness through all languages, however old, however new, however polished, however
rude. As humanity is one under its amazing diversities, language is one under its”
(1987, p. 1).
Primordial Language in Maharishi Vedic Science
Emerson’s and Whitman’s discussions of culture and self-culture form an interesting
parallel to Maharishi’s commentary on the distinctions between cultural and Vedic
Literature. The Vedic Literature printed in books is only the written manifestation of an
ancient oral tradition which has preserved the primordial sounds of Nature. The Veda
itself, Maharishi explains, is not a cultural literature; rather it is the primordial sounds of
one’s own self-referral consciousness. These sounds are not created by human beings—
they are the impulses of creative intelligence itself, the language of Nature from which
objects name themselves (1972a). The Veda is therefore in Emerson’s phrase, “written
before time was”; it is the sequence of sounds—the emergence of each syllable paralleling
the structuring of matter from the Unified Field of Natural Law—that is the “blueprint
of creation.” The theoretical physicist John Hagelin has suggested that the structure
of the unified field in physics and the structure of the Unified Field of consciousness
described by Vedic Science are so parallel that the elementary particles of physics
should be, to preserve accuracy, renamed according to Vedic language (1989). Michael
Dillbeck, a social psychologist, finds the Vedic blueprint appropriate for describing the
laws of human psychology (1988). Tony Nader, who has an M.D. and a Ph.D. in physiology,
has shown detailed correlations between the human nervous system, the physiology
of the universe, and the sounds of Vedic Literature (1995). Veda then is the general
underlying sound sequence which manifests as specific forms and patterns, subjectively
as consciousness and objectively as matter.
Maharishi explains that the natural precision of Vedic words is a result of their perfect
name and form correlation; that is, the sound is that particular quality of vibration
which structures the particular form of the object. A Vedic word is like the seed containing
all the vital information from which the tree grows (1971b). This specific name
and form quality, however, is verifiable only in higher states of consciousness, for only
in these expanded states is a person sufficiently aware to discriminate the subtle effects
of sounds. Such was the case, Maharishi tells us, of the ancient Ayur-Vedic seers who
25
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
could cognize the correct names of plants; their experience was, “I don’t give it a name;
it gives me its name” (1972a).
The Vedic term for the clearest and truest perception of sounds is Ritam bhara
pragya (that intellect which accepts only the truth). This experience is the finest level of
discrimination that corresponds to the Pashyanti level of language. In Ritam bhara
pragya, one perceives all the sensory and historical qualities of the named object along
with its transcendental basis. In this state of awareness, Maharishi says, consciousness
is situated at the junction point between intuition and transcendence. The Transcendental
Meditation-SidhiSM program specifically strengthens this experience (Gelderloos and
van den Berg, 1989, p. 383). Although in cultural languages objects have diverse arbitrary
names, their common basis in the Pashyanti and ParΠlevels of language could be
perceived in the experience of Ritam. This refined discrimination could be experienced
in any language, but it exists most effortlessly in the Vedic language in which the sound
and form are most perfectly correlated, not only on the Pashyanti and ParΠlevels but
on all levels of language.
Since the Vedic language represents the perfect relation between sounds and objects
in Nature, Maharishi has explained, it can be called the “primordial” language of Nature,
not a specific cultural language, nor a language of change, but of “the unchanging Unity
of life” (1967, p. 3). Maharishi says that “The truth of Vedic wisdom is by its very
nature independent of time and can therefore never be lost” (1967, p. 3). Thoreau
seemed to perceive this quality of the Vedic Literature, even in translation: “What
extracts from the Vedas I have read fall on me like light of a higher and purer luminary,
which describes a loftier course through a purer stratum,—free from particulars, simple,
universal” (1990, p. 62). At another time Thoreau wrote: “Even at this late hour,
unworn by time, with a native and inherent dignity it [Vedic Literature] wears the
English dress as indifferently as the Sanskrit. . . . The great thought is never found in a
mean dress, but is of virtue to ennoble any language” (1981, p. 316). Thoreau, as the
clothes metaphor indicates, seems able to pierce the surface and perceive something of
the Vedas’ transcendental signified, even through the medium of an historical language.
However, Maharishi warns, even the timeless Vedic Literature becomes misinterpreted
over time when “man’s vision becomes one-sided and he is caught in the binding
influence of the phenomenal world . . . ” (1967, p. 3). In such periods of ignorance, the
Veda is thought to be contained only in books instead of being located in one’s own
self-referral consciousness. Maharishi points out that one can be confused by viewing
the Vedic Literature from the outside, from the point of view of some school of thought,
whereas the full meaning of Veda can only be known in Transcendental Consciousness
(1967, p. 106).
Vedic Literature, though timeless, can be thought of as a model for cultural literature,
Maharishi has said, in the way the Veda embodies the full range of Natural Law,
and the way it can bring the audience in attunement with Natural Law (1972b, 1976).
Whitman would agree that the full range of Nature and its primary law—evolution
towards fulfillment—constitute the only worthy topics of poetry: “For the eternal tendencies
of all toward happiness make the only point of sane philosophy. Whatever comprehends
less than that . . . is of no account” (1982, p. 16). If Whitman’s statement is
26
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
true, why then should each culture bother to write mere fragments or parts of the primordial
poetry? An explanation can be found in Maharishi’s commentary on cultural
integrity.
Maharishi’s Theory of Cultural Integrity and the “Mother Tongue”
Each language and culture, Maharishi states, is born from the individual character of
its climate and geography, but “all cultures are the expression of the eternal impulse of
the Absolute to know itself” (1977, p. 142). Furthermore, he explains, “Nature loves
variety. World harmony is not based on the elimination of different cultures; it is based
on the ability of each culture to maintain its own integrity on the basis of the infinite
adaptability that characterizes life lived in accord with the laws of nature” (1977, p. 142).
Languages too are based on the physical differences of place and therefore must reflect
some aspect of difference. Maharishi explains that what upholds a specific culture are the
two distinct aspects of Natural Law—the universal and the local. The universal is the
Unified Field of pure consciousness located at the basis of Natural Law which gives rise
to the specific cultures founded on local Laws of Nature such as climate and geography
(1992, p. 10). What allows a culture to change in a stable and progressive manner is its
alliance with both local and universal levels of Natural Law.
Maharishi calls the local language, imbibed with the qualities of the local place and
culture, “the mother tongue”:
Mother tongue is the Language of Nature, which is intimately related to the individual
because it is structured and upheld by local Laws of Nature, which structure the physiology
of the individual. Vedic Language is the Language of Nature, which is structured
and upheld by the universal Laws of Nature, which are the common basis of all the
physiological structures of the universe. This means that there is a direct relationship of
the whole with the part—between the mother tongue and Vedic Language. This means
mother tongue is the closest to the Vedic Language. (1994, p. 361)
Maharishi often uses the analogy of the sap and the flower to illustrate how the
local and universal levels of Natural Law work together. The sap is the all-pervasive
and invisible core giving rise to specialized parts—flower, stem, leaf, thorn—one phenomenon
with different forms of expression. Similarly, the skill of the poet, as Whitman
remarked many times, integrates what is local with what is universal. Emerson made a
joke about Whitman’s integration of universal and local when he remarked that Leaves
of Grass was a mixture of the Bhagavad-Gita and the New York Herald. Whitman took
such unification seriously in Democratic Vistas:
[G]ood literature, has certain features shared in common. . . . The combination fraternizes,
ties the races—is, in many particulars, under laws applicable indifferently to all,
irrespective of climate or date, and, from whatever source, appeals to emotions, pride,
love, spirituality, common to human-kind. Nevertheless, they touch a man closest (perhaps
only actually touch him) . . . out of his own nationality, geography, surroundings,
antecedents, etc. (1982, p. 978)
27
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Part II. Higher States of Consciousness and the Aesthetic Response
From a quantum model of the human physiology the aesthetic response is seen to be
based on a self-referral movement of consciousness that is integrating to the whole psychophysiology
and connects it to the processes of growth in Nature. The aesthetic
response is ideally a glimpse of a higher, more refined state of consciousness in which
pure unbounded awareness coexists with waking consciousness.
How the Aesthetic Response Connects Us to Natural Law
The purpose of life, Maharishi has said, is the expansion of happiness, the movement
of all beings towards full development (1963, p. 80). The highest purpose of art is
the expression of life, but it is also the expansion of happiness, to place individuals in
tune with cosmic purpose by culturing the bliss and refinement of the individual nervous
system and developing full human potential (Maharishi, 1975). Bliss, Maharishi
states, is more than happiness; it is the state of full functioning of mind and body
together. When established permanently in the individual nervous system, bliss is a
quality of enlightenment or total integration based on the perfect self-referral functioning
of the human organism at all times during waking, dreaming, or sleeping with no
obstructions to the flow of life (Wallace, 1986).
Art, like language, has its outer use in preserving historical culture; it has its inner
value in bringing the human nervous system towards a state of fulfillment that integrates
or “cultures” it towards harmony with Natural Law. Any art which does not take
the awareness in an evolutionary direction, does not culture life, does not deserve the
name of art, Maharishi explains (1976). Thus, “Culture has as its function to nourish all
aspects of life” (1978, p. 597). With this nourishing quality of culture, the aesthetic
experience takes on immense significance, what the Transcendentalists called “self-culture,”
the movement of awareness from the gross art object to the most refined level of
the Self where the aesthetic aha! response expands and integrates awareness.
Western philosophers who write on aesthetics perennially argue about what constitutes
beauty in art and whether or not beauty is to be appreciated for its own sake or for
the sake of some moral end. Aesthetics as a study has always been highly speculative,
but for postmodern critics it is baseless: “aesthetic ideology involves . . . a confusing of
mind and world, sign and thing” (1990, p. 10). For these critics, language is no longer
capable of bridging the gap between world and mind; therefore, the aesthetic experience
does not really exist, and it is not desirable that it should, since it purports to lead to
some privatized and elitist interpretation of texts.
In Maharishi Vedic Science, on the other hand, the aesthetic experience is not
viewed as belonging to a private emotional realm. It is an experience of Transcendental
Consciousness, a taste of the bliss that results from the SaµhitŒ of self-referral awareness
where the knower becomes united with the object of knowledge in the process of
knowing it. Art, as we have seen, creates bliss, and bliss is the psychophysiological selfreferral
experience that makes us whole and connects us to our own life processes.
Although bliss is subjective, it links the historical subject to the unbounded Self, a point
both within and outside culture. Maharishi identifies the goal of art as taking the
28
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
audience towards this bliss, even if at first only momentarily. Audiences familiar with
their own self-referral capabilities will be most open to this aesthetic experience
(1975a). Many of the salutary and spiritual characteristics Maharishi attributes to the
aesthetic experience can also be found in the philosophy of Whitman.
Whitman’s Aesthetics of Perfect Health
For Whitman, things are much simpler than for the postmodern writer. The aesthetic
experience is for him the goal of poetry; it is the communication which takes place
between poet and reader. It begins with the quality of the poet’s consciousness; the poet
is a “seer” “complete in himself . . . the others are as good as he, only he sees it and they
do not” (1982, p. 10). It is the poet’s presence that gives life to language: “If he breathes
into any thing that was before thought small it dilates with the grandeur and life of the
universe” (1982, p. 10). The poet aims beyond the beauty of “dumb real objects” toward
the beauty of the soul (1982, p. 10). Beauty for Whitman is the democratic perception
that all life is equally precious: “about the proper expression of beauty there is precision
and balance . . . one part does not need to be thrust above another” (1982, p.12). The
beauty he wishes to convey is the beauty of the whole, the beauty that can only be seen
by one who has faith in the purpose of Nature: “The known universe has one complete
lover and that is the greatest poet. . . . Nothing can jar him . . . suffering and darkness
cannot—death and fear cannot.” Beauty for the great poet is not a matter of “hit or miss
. . . it is as inevitable as life . . . it is as exact and plumb as gravitation” (1982, pp.
11–12). Whitman sees beauty in subjects where others do not, for he sees with his heart;
he is a complete lover, refusing to reject anything: he would “not call the tortoise
unworthy because she is not something else” (“Song of Myself,” 1987, p. 15).
Whitman embodies his perceptions in language and only “hints” to the reader of his
direction, for “The reader will always have his or her part to do, just as much as I have
had mine. I seek less to state or display any theme or thought, and more to bring you,
reader, into the atmosphere of the theme or thought—there to pursue your own flight”
(“Backward Glance,” 1982, p. 667). Here Whitman plainly states that poetry is an interplay
of both the reader’s and writer’s consciousness. Whitman never claims the poet is
the final authority; readers have their share. Poetry for him is a democratic process.
Whitman thought of poetry as something practical and healing and the poet as
someone who understands “first principles” (1982, p. 18) and can apply them to society
through art. In the 1855 Preface to Leaves of Grass, Whitman characterizes the poet as
the feedback mechanism of the nation: he is the “equalizer” and “supplies what wants
supplying and checks what wants checking” (1982, p. 9). This poet must be in tune with
the self-renewing mechanism of Nature. Whitman said he could not conceive of democracy
maintaining itself “without the Nature-element forming a main part—to be its
health-element and beauty-element—to really underlie the whole politics, sanity, religion,
and art of the New World” (“Specimen Days,” 1982, p. 926). And his personal job
he felt was to place readers in touch with Nature and self-renewal as best he could: “I
only seek to put you in rapport. Your own brain, heart, evolution, must not only under-
29
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
stand the matter, but largely supply it” (“Specimen Days,” 1982, p. 924). Here Whitman
implies that the transcendental element in the poem is the goal of the aesthetic experience,
a form of meaning neither given, nor received, but shared, using the words to
invoke the unspoken.
Whitman said the final test of all art is Nature, and he had a habit of dramatizing
this point by reading authors in the open air under his cedar tree to see if they made
sense in the out-of-doors (“Specimen Days,” 1982, pp. 884, 925). Whitman included
physical health in his definition of art: “All beauty comes from beautiful blood and a
beautiful brain” (1982, p. 11). The poem contains not only the poet’s spiritual presence
but his physiognomy as well; contact with a healthy presence produces the most healing
effect. Beauty therefore is wholeness, the contact of which gives health, like fresh air.
Whitman expected a specific psychophysiological response from his readers: “My book
ought to emanate buoyancy and gladness legitimately enough, for it was grown out of
those elements, and has been the comfort of my life since it was originally commenced”
(“Backward Glance,” 1982, p. 670).
An Aesthetics Derived from Maharishi Vedic Science
A holistic approach to aesthetics has to begin with a holistic understanding of the
mind-body correlation. Maharishi Vedic Science describes the mind-body functioning
as one quantum field effect and the human body as part of the larger quantum body of
the universe. The universal body contains wholeness at every point, so that each cell,
each individual body participates in that wholeness while maintaining its individual
identity. The microcosm is the macrocosm. The DNA in the cell replicates and responds
to the workings of the galaxy. Maharishi views “every human being as the embodiment
of the total creative process in Nature and renders human life as a field of all possibilities”
(Nader, 1995, p. v). This interconnectedness of all life is a natural perception in
higher states of consciousness. Professor Tony Nader, a physiologist working recently
with Maharishi, has found precise correlations in the structures of Vedic Literature and
human physiology. His research, with Maharishi’s feedback and guidance, even goes so
far as to discover the quantum body of the universe as the universal text of Veda, written
in every human body:
There is nothing beyond one grand field of consciousness, which holds: body is mind—
matter is intelligence—physiology is consciousness. This discovery brings to light physiology
in terms of its inner intelligence, whose impulses are available in the form of
sounds of the Veda and Vedic Literature. (1995, p. viii)
The human body, he continues, is “the reflection of the structuring dynamics of
Nature,” and it has the ability to experience the “level of pure knowingness” which is
“the inner Self of everyone. It is pure knowledge, wakefulness devoid of any thought,
image, or fluctuation. It is unbounded, pure silence” (1995, p. 13). This self-referral
silence is the “universal source of all the laws of Nature” (1995, p. 4). Far from being
static, this silence is dynamic, making the human body and the universe more like fluctuating
waves than solid particles: “The physiology is a dynamic field of continuous
transformations, which occur within sets of feedback loops that insure continuity within
30
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
change. The physiology may be likened to a river—it always looks the same, but is
always new” (1995, pp. 24–5).
This model of the mind-body as one vibrating continuum of sound from its unmanifest
source in silence to its more concrete form in the physical world creates a unique
context for discussing the integrated aesthetic experience. This model is one of interacting
fields. In literary theory fields can be discussed in terms of “texts”—the intertextual
network composed of all individual texts which constantly refer to and resonate with
each other. No work is an isolated island. There are no solid particles in cultural studies
today. Culture is one continuous body of words. If the individual body can be seen as a
text, a structure of sound waves, then we could say that it resonates within itself when
stimulated by the answering sounds of the text of literature, producing greater self-harmony
and harmony with the larger text of Nature. Whitman intuitively understood these
dimensions of the textual Word when he says in “Song of the Rolling Earth”:
Human bodies are words . . . Air, soil, water, fire—those are words, / I myself am a
word with them—my qualities interpenetrate with theirs. . . . The workmanship of souls
is by those inaudible words of the earth, / The masters know the earth’s words and use
them more than audible words. . . . Each man to himself and each woman to herself, is
the word of the past and present, and the true word of immortality. (1987, pp. 266–69)
Whitman felt the “meaning” of literature was thus in the experience of it, not in an
intellectual formulation; it was for him like listening to music or the ocean (“Specimen
Days,” 1982, p. 923). Similarly, Maharishi has emphasized the experiential effect of
poetry on the listener’s consciousness rather than its intellectual value:
Meaning has its value in poetry and that value is involved in it. But I would attribute the
value of the poetry in the structure and connectedness of the words. Meaning has its value
in it. It’s imibed in it, but the more poetic value, more value of the poetry lies in the
words and their connectedness. Meaning is a secondary aspect of a poem. (1972b)
A poem’s revitalizing quality does not depend on the grosser levels of language
where meaning is recognized by the intellect. The true value of poetry happens on what
Vedic Language theory calls the Pashyanti and ParŒ levels—the name and form correlation
of the transcendental meaning—the levels which can penetrate the whole psychophysiology.
The aesthetic experience—being deeply moved and changed by the
beauty of art—would seem to have an even more powerful function if experienced in
higher states of consciousness. It would, as Maharishi says, take a person back to the
bliss (sat-chit-ananda or absolute bliss consiousness) of one’s own Self (1975b).
The Self was also in Emerson’s mind in “The Poet,” an essay that insists that the
artist can connect any phenomenon to natural law and to the Self, an idea that parallels
Maharishi’s statement about literature:
no matter what state of existence, it breathes in the process of evolution. Ugly existence,
beautiful existence, static existence, flowing existence, no matter what state of existence,
it breathes in the process of evolution. And because, as we have already seen,
every literary impulse is in tune with the evolutionary process, when a cultured mind
looks at a thing, what he sees is the quantum mechanical level of the object, that unmanifest
level of the object where all the laws of nature are functioning. (1976)
31
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
And a little further,
and because evolution is one’s own nature, one sees one’s own nature in everything, and
this reference to the Self makes everything enjoyable. (1976)
Aesthetic bliss comes not from the subject matter but from the way it is viewed and
structured in the work of art. One way the bliss is structured for the audience, says
Maharishi, is with contrasting opposites put together in compact expressions. This concentration
of contrasts shakes or swings the awareness from one opposite sound, meaning,
or rhythm to another in such a way as to make the awareness experience the coexistence
of opposites (1974). Whitman uses this technique in “Song of Myself”: “I
believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey-work of the stars. . . . And a mouse is
miracle enough to stagger sextillions of infidels” (“Song of Myself,” 1987, p. 41). In the
first statement, we must rapidly shift to incorporate both grass and stars in the same
thought, feeling how the one is an expression of the other, thus taking in the entire
process of creation in one sentence. Whitman does a similar thing with the paradox of a
tiny mouse staggering an unimaginable number of unbelievers into seeing the miracle of
its existence. We feel joy in having our awareness expand to encompass such huge contrasts,
for it makes us experience something of our own unbounded nature.
Maharishi points out that the aesthetic experience unifies opposites, and therefore
“The totality of the value of literature is in raising that unified awareness where one
comprehends in a natural way, without any effort, the great contrasts: the light and darkness,
the mountains and rivers, the ripples and the ocean” (1976). This aesthetic
response can lead not merely to pleasure but to wisdom (1976). Wisdom resides in the
experience of opposite values harmonized and unified in awareness, taking one out of
the ignorance of duality where suffering dominates (1967, pp. 35–37). If enlightenment
is the ability of consciousness to harmonize opposites, particularly the opposites of
dynamism and silence, of unity and diversity (1967, pp. 306–308; 1994, pp. 41–71),
then literature with its formally unified but structured contrasts offers the mind opportunities
to function in a more enlightened way, to maintain an expanded perspective while
focusing on details (1976). Literature allows one to place the awareness in an evolutionary
direction and, as Maharishi states, it is only comprehensive awareness which will
lead to fulfillment for humanity by avoiding violation of the Laws of Nature (1976).
The aesthetic experience can be useful for the growth of the individual towards enlightenment,
but may not happen as easily for some readers as for others if they are not
accustomed to transcending on a regular basis (1976).
Is the Aesthetic Response Escapist?
According to postmodern literary theory, an aesthetics based on a movement of
awareness towards self-referral lying outside of history is escapist, leading to a non-productive
state of mind. What keeps it from being selfish or escapist, according to
Maharishi’s explanation of aesthetics, is that during the aesthetic response one spontaneously
experiences harmony between the gross and subtle levels of life. Thus, it can
lead to an integration with life, rather than an alienation from it. Maharishi points out
that the aesthetic experience connects and integrates all aspects of the mind (1972b).
32
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Similarly, Whitman thought art could indirectly lead the reader to the “noiseless
operation of one’s isolated Self where “interior consciousness” could commune with the
“divine levels” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 965). He also was adamant that art had a
moral purpose; it must “lead to works, books, nobler than any hitherto known” that
would “free, arouse, [and] dilate” the reader (1982, p. 988). Whitman did not treat transcendentalism
as a form of quietism, but rather as the prerequisite for self-sufficient
individuals who could create a new democracy. In spite of its direct promotion of reader
involvement and its political aims, Whitman’s poetry is still misunderstood by contemporary
theorists because of its advocacy of the transcendental experience.
New historicists object that any transcendental theory leaves out the body, and
therefore history. They seek to reinscribe the body in their aesthetics. Marxist Terry
Eagleton, for example, wants to return to the original meaning of aesthetics—sense perception
of the beautiful. Aesthetics, he would have it, could be redeemed from “the burden
of idealism” by focusing on its materialistic roots (1990, p. 196). Eagleton admits
the difficulty of this goal but calls it a “breathtaking wager” on the body (1990, p. 197).
As he himself points out, this appears to be the swing of the pendulum from one
extreme—aesthetics as a disembodied “idealized refuge”—to the sensuous or material.
Eagleton dismisses the Romantic aesthetic which informs Whitman’s poetry as
bourgeois ideology, a glorification of private experience (1990, pp. 8–20). Romantic
poets, however, did not gravitate exclusively towards the transcendent; for example
they recognized that in some ways the senses were instrumental to the aesthetic experience
while not being the locus of it. Keats is the most obvious example. Consider the
“Pleasure Thermometer” passage from “Endymion” where such a stimulus as the touch
of a rose leaf or the sound of music can put one beyond the senses “Into a sort of oneness
. . . like a floating spirit’s” (1958, pp. 796–7). In a similar way, the speaker in
“Song of Myself” section 26 employs the senses as a basis for transcending them: “Now
I will do nothing but listen,” he says. After hearing a long catalogue of sounds, including
an orchestra which makes him “lose [his] breath,” Whitman’s speaker settles to the
very basis of the sounds to know “the puzzle of puzzles, Being” (1987, pp. 6–38).
Readers of passages like these often focus on only one aspect of the aesthetic experience,
either the sensuous or the spiritual, not understanding their interdependence. In
fact, most readers cannot reconcile Whitman’s transcendental withdrawal from the senses
with his celebration of sensory experience (for exceptions see Sarraccino and
Kuebrich). Whitman boldly declares, “I am the poet of the Body, and I am the poet of
the Soul,” a statement that led E. H. Miller to call Whitman an “inverted mystic,” one
that does not practice asceticism to find God; one that finds God through the senses
(Miller, 1957, pp. 66–35; see also Haney, 1981, for an answer to Miller). This is a common
misunderstanding about the sensory and the spiritual, a belief that their relationship
is basically antagonistic. Maharishi points out, however, that enlightenment, or higher
states of consciousness, integrates these two seemingly paradoxical fields to produce a
wholeness beyond what each represents individually.
33
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
The Aesthetic Response Integrates Mind and Body
Authors have described the creative experience in ways that sound like glimpses of
higher states of consciousness (Orme-Johnson, 1987, pp. 333–341). The aesthetic
response is also creative, as Emerson and Whitman both noted, demanding the reader’s
awareness be able to recreate the movement of consciousness inherent in the language.
The aesthetic experience also involves glimpses of higher stages of human awareness.
The development of these higher state,s Maharishi demonstrates, can be described in
discrete detail (Alexander et al., 1989), but here it is enough to say each higher state of
consciousness—Cosmic Consciousness, God Consciousness, and Unity Consciousness—
includes the common factor of transcendental or self-referral consciousness
always present during waking, dreaming, and sleeping. A person established in one of
these higher states is thus aware of the unified continuum of consciousness underlying
all phenomena while also aware of sensory objects as parts of that whole. Thus, reality,
Maharishi states, which ranges from gross, concrete levels to abstract, unmanifest levels
of existence, is known in an absolute way, not by the senses but by consciousness alone.
The advantage to studying aesthetics using the Vedic model of language based on
levels of consciousness is that it can explain the dynamics behind the aesthetic experience.
If awareness is “flexible,” Maharishi points out, it can slip from one level to
another, say from the grosser reality of manifest objects to the underlying continuum of
consciousness or Self, using the sensuous level as the initial stimulus (1971b, 1972c,
1976). Maharishi notes that the success of poetry rests in the same principle of Natural
Law that guides the Transcendental Meditation technique: transcending (1972c).
Transcending is natural because greater intensity of happiness lies in an inward direction,
at deeper, more powerful levels of mental activity; and if given the chance, the
mind will spontaneously gravitate towards subtler levels of awareness (1967, pp.
317–19). Using the Transcendental Meditation technique as a model for this movement
of awareness, Maharishi explains the method for bringing the senses to their most
refined and orderly state:
The technique of bringing them ‘all’ under control is to engage any one sense in providing
increasing happiness for the mind on the path of transcending—that is, to begin the
practice of transcendental meditation. In this process, the mind, using a particular sense
for passing through the finer levels of experience and transcending the subtlest experience,
also transcends the field of that sense and the fields of all the senses. Gaining
bliss-consciousness in this way, the mind wins automatic control over all the senses.
(1967, p. 116)
Here Maharishi explains the technology of transcending from one level of the mind
to another, using the senses as an initial stimulus. All successful poets, he has said, have
used a similar method in their literary technique. They move the audience’s awareness
by following “the path of transcendence” from outer perception to inner, using sense
perception of the beautiful as the starting point (1972c). Such a movement occurs in the
structure of the Greater Romantic Lyric, Wordsworth’s Tintern Abbey for instance,
which begins with a contemplation of outer nature, a beautiful view of the English
countryside from a river bank, and moves to an experience of inner nature, of the poet’s
34
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
own transcendent Self. Maharishi explains that the Transcendental Meditation technique
greatly enhances this inner directedness of the poet; he says it cultures the mind to
become so flexible that any beautiful art object—painting, music, literature, etc.—can
be a catalyst for the well-trained mind to slip to finer levels of consciousness where the
subtleties of the work of art can be most appreciated (1976). Art, moreover, does more
than recreate the path of transcendence. It also can integrate the two poles of the aesthetic
continuum—body and mind—by swinging the awareness back and forth between
the gross sensory level and the refined transcendental level, thus connecting and integrating
all levels of the mind.
After some practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique, Maharishi notes
that the transcendent comes to be lived naturally on the level of sensory perception; that
is, one can experience Transcendental Consciousness along with sensory experience.
Whitman reported having a similar experience: “a trance, yet with all the senses alert—
only a state of high exalted musing—the tangible and material with all its shows, the
objective world suspended or surmounted for a while, & the powers in exaltation, freedom,
vision—yet the senses not lost or counteracted” (1928, p. 21). In higher integrated
states of consciousness, Maharishi explains that sensory experience is enhanced because
pure consciousness is not lost in perception; rather, it remains the basis of it (Wallace,
1986, pp. 251, 253). Integrated unified consciousness is referred to as a “higher” state of
consciousness not because it is an elitist category, but because it is an “optimal” state of
functioning for the human nervous system (Wallace, 1986, p. 9). This understanding is
necessary for a more complete evaluation of the possibilities of “perfect health” in
Whitman’s poetry in which transcending the senses simultaneously enlivens and refines
them.
A Practical Aesthetics of Consciousness
The implications of Maharishi’s technology of transcending for aesthetics are
important. First of all, a Vedic aesthetics provides both a theoretical basis and a practical
technique to verify the full potential of the aesthetic response. Secondly, such an
aesthetics does include the body and explains the dynamics between it and the mind,
showing how they cooperate in producing aesthetic bliss. Third, in being an aesthetics
which systematically covers experiences in all states of consciousness, it would account
for varying descriptions of the aesthetic response. Finally, the objection that an aesthetics
of transcendence is a withdrawal from the world is answered by Maharishi. Ethically
such an aesthetics can only be perfected in higher states of consciousness in which the
individual is capable of acting from a cosmic rather than a selfish need (1975b). In that
regard, Maharishi points out that great literature has the obligation and power to set the
trends of time, not merely to record them, by being able to set the awareness of the
audience in an evolutionary direction (1976).
Whitman’s Rhythm of Nature
In “A Unified Field Based Theory of Literature” Rhoda Orme-Johnson develops
Maharishi’s point that successful literature recreates to some degree the transcending
35
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
process, noting that various literary techniques take the reader’s awareness to a more
silent, settled state, towards self-referral consciousness (1987, p. 353). Although literature
cannot swing the awareness towards infinite silence to the same degree as the
Transcendental Meditation technique, Maharishi has stated that “it would seem the
same law of nature is at work” (1987, p. 353). Orme-Johnson names such techniques as
figurative language, gaps, rhythm, harmony, and point of view that would produce this
effect (1987, pp. 353–360). Whitman is one such writer whose writing follows this pattern.
He seems to work primarily through sound techniques to link the reader back to
the Self. Using sound to promote transcending, Whitman found the simplest, most natural
way to bypass intellectual thought. C. Carroll Hollis notes the relative lack of
metaphor and other figures in Whitman’s early poetry in favor of an oral style (1983, p.
8). Whitman relies on his highly rhythmical lines to lead the reader’s awareness to subtler
levels of language and eventually to the reader’s own silent core. It has been commonly
noted that his long lines imitate the rhythm of ocean waves. Others emulate the
rhythms in the Bible, achieved through paratactic structures: “And I know that the hand
of God is the promise of my own, / And I know that the spirit of God is the brother of
my own” (“Song of Myself,” 1987, p. 6). In his 1855 Preface, Whitman acknowledges
sound’s ability to take the reader to the ground of consciousness:
The profit of rhyme is that it drops seeds of a sweeter and more luxuriant rhyme, and of
uniformity that it conveys itself into its own roots in the ground out of sight. The rhyme
and uniformity of perfect poems show the free growth of metrical laws and bud from
them as unerringly and loosely as lilacs or roses on a bush. . . . (1982, p. 11)
He asserts here first of all that there are different levels of “rhyme.” Whitman uses
the term “rhyme” in its broadest sense to mean all the sound effects of poetry, including
rhythm. As rhyme is experienced at subtler more “luxuriant” levels, it becomes a “uniformity”
disappearing into the roots of rhyme which is out of sight. These roots, he
implies, are unmanifest and self-referral, taking rhyme into its own origin. “Out of
sight” also suggests “out of hearing,” into silence. He then states that rhyme cannot be
prescribed arbitrarily for poems because metrics must be derived from nature and fit a
specific thought. He is describing in his own terms the way the name and form phenomenon
occurs in poetry through the quality of the emerging sound. Metrics cannot be
standardly prescribed because each object in a poem will need its own rhythm, will bud
out like a lilac or rose on a bush. While onamatapoeia is a technique for imitating the
surface representation of sound (“whiz,” “bang”), rhythm and rhyme dive to subtler
more fundamental levels of language where the direct pulse of Nature can be registered
as it arises from its own ground state.
Whitman described himself as a poet “pressing the pulse of life” in order to get
beneath surfaces, to treat “[man] as he is in himself” (“To a Historian,” 1987, p. 307).
The primordial rhythm that Whitman feels within humanity is the same as he perceives
in Nature: a dynamism within eternal silence. Whitman described this beat as “the pulsations
of all matter, all spirit, throbbing forever—the eternal beats, eternal systole and
diastole of life in things—where from I feel and know that death is not the ending, as
was thought, but rather the real beginning—and that nothing ever is or can be lost, nor
ever die, nor soul, nor matter” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, p. 988). Eternal silence
36
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
underlying dynamic flow is both method and message in Whitman as he illustrates in
the systole and diastole of his poetry. For example, this double rhythm of time/eternity
is brilliantly recreated in Chants Two and Three of “Song of Myself.” Readers are led
step by step by the soothing rhythms of the irregular lines to the roots of rhyme in their
own settled awareness. The origin of poems, the universe, and their own experience are
felt as one heartbeat. He commands us to
Stop this day and night with me and you shall possess the origin of all poems,
You shall possess the good of the earth and sun, (there are millions of suns left,)
You shall no longer take things at second or third hand, nor look through the eyes of the
dead, nor feed on the spectres of books,
You shall not look through my eyes either, nor take things from me,
You shall listen to all things and filter them for your self. (1987, p. 2–3)
Now that Whitman has our attention, telling us he will lead us to the source of poetry
so we can listen and experience for ourselves, he submerges us in pure “luxuriant”
rhyme that tells us the whole story of life, how time and eternity coexist:
I have heard what the talkers were talking, the talk of the beginning and the end,
But I do not talk of the beginning or the end.
There was never any more inception than there is now,
Nor any more youth or age than there is now,
And will never be any more perfection than there is now,
Nor any more heaven or hell than there is now.
Urge and urge and urge,
Always the procreant urge of the world.
Out of the dimness opposite equals advance, always substance and increase. . . .
(1987, pp. 2–3)
Each line is a building wave that crashes back to the beginning of the line that comes
after it. Along with the rhythmic surges of time we feel the silent fullness that gives
birth to it.
Whitman wanted to embody not only eternal rhythms of time in his poetry, but also
the specific movements he felt in nineteenth-century America: “the rapidity of movement—
the violent contrasts, fluctuations of light and shade, of hope and fear . . .” like
“some colossal drama” (“Preface,” 1982, pp. 1000–01). One important way, then, that
“Song of Myself” takes readers back to their own selves is through rhythm. Whitman
unifies presidents, slaves, politicians, mothers, fathers, children, battles, Nature, cities,
history, and the future through his relentless wave-like rhythms sweeping us through
endless cosmic and human cycles, yet always ending or beginning in the same place:
the witnessing eternal Self. These various people and activities “come to me days and
nights and go from me again, / But they are not the Me myself” (1987, p. 5). We
become that invincible Self as the cumulative rhythm of experience washes over us,
leaving us exhilarated and whole, never diminished, because we are never allowed to
get stuck in any one event, not even a Civil War: “wider and wider they [the cycles]
spread, expanding, always expanding / Outward and outward and forever outward. . . .
There is no stoppage and never can be any stoppage” (1987, pp. 73–74). Eventually
37
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Whitman reveals through his poem that this ongoing rhythm is identical to the spiritual
evolution for the whole human race: “Have you outstript the rest? are you the President?
/ It is a trifle, they [every soul] will more than arrive there, every one, and still pass on
. . . .” (1987, p. 27). In its structure, “Song of Myself” imitates the evolutionary movement
of Nature, putting us in that same flow when we read it. (See also Sarracino on
Whitman’s cyclical imagery.)
Contemplating this flow, we may notice how Whitman’s rhythms feel like our own
breathing. His line lengths, Hollis notes, are linked to the human voice. His cadence is
not metrical, but oral, like the cursus of English religious oratorical prose (the Book of
Common Prayer, for instance). Hollis reminds us that the cursus, meant to be spoken
aloud, “is shaped even as it is limited by the physiological requirements of breathing
and utterance” (1983, p. 37). Hollis also asserts that the frequent ellipses in Whitman’s
poetry do not denote something left out, but are pauses for breath (1983, p. 109). (See
also Johnson.)
Maharishi points out that the ancient Vedic seers saw the rhythm of life on the level
of their own silent consciousness and these rhythms became the expressions of the Veda
(1972c). For all literature, Maharishi identifies the principle of its natural rhythm—the
rapid expansion and contraction of contrasting qualities—as its evolutionary power, the
power to put one in touch with the same pulsations of the universe arising from its origin
in silence.
Literature does more than describe evolution; it is evolutionary in its mechanics for
both writer and reader. Rapid shaking of the awareness through the rhythms and contrasts
in literature, Maharishi explains, does not leave us excited, but brings the mind to
a settled state, as transcending through the Transcendental Meditation technique brings
the mind to restful alertness. When the mind and body are restfully alert, stress—that
which covers or blocks one’s true nature—can drop off. One of the traditional goals of
literature is catharsis, a kind of purification resulting from the aesthetic response. The
purgation the audience receives from the swings of awareness structured by literature
leads to witnessing, greater inner silence and perspective, and greater inner stability
(1974). Maharishi comments on why one would feel peaceful and reassured at the end
of a Shakespeare tragedy, for instance:
If there is a tragedy in a play of Shakespeare, it has a peaceful ending. This peaceful
ending, in a transcendental way, brings the message—take it as it comes. It is a beautiful
teaching, and this is a theme in that kind of play. So no matter what the play is, he shows
the end to be peaceful, with a deep peace, preparing life for a high jump of evolution.
(1976)
The rapid rise and fall of contrasts within an ordered whole is a pattern of growth
reinforced in the psychophysiology during the aesthetic response. Even though
Whitman was one of the first experimenters with “free verse” and did not use the most
familiar sound technique of poetry—end rhyme—his poetry has a familiar and natural
movement to it that harmonizes our pulses like the movements of Nature. On the subject
of rhyme Maharishi notes, “Even if the last words don’t rhyme properly, they don’t
have to, but there is a rising wave of rhythm. And then, in order to continue this wave of
rhythm, the rise of the wave and fall of the wave, in a continuous whole, makes the
whole expression a very delightful rhythm of life, the breath of speech” (1971b).
38
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
The wave rises from the silent ocean and falls back into it. From the perspective of
higher states of consciousness, moreover, this rhythm becomes even more pleasing as
one would perceive the rise and fall in Nature to be not merely alternating, like night
and day, but simultaneous and co-present. In “Song of Myself,” as noted, the regularity
of the long wave-like rhythms creates a cumulative effect, settling down the mind so it
can gradually become alert to the accompanying silence underneath. Experiencing this
double rhythm allows a person to understand how Whitman’s persona can accept and
unify all diversity and events within himself. Two rhythms together, silence and
dynamism, embody the entire range of life. Maharishi comments on this: “Consciousness
is that element which is available in the coexistence of the opposite qualities of
intelligence—one silence, one dynamism. To enjoy the situation of the coexistence of
silence and dynamism it is interesting to observe that silence and dynamism, both characteristics
of Natural Law, have to be on the extreme level of alertness, because if one is
less alert than the other, then the more alert, more powerful, will overshadow the less
alert, less powerful (1995, pp. 92–3). When the two are balanced Maharishi calls this
“wholeness on the move”—the most fundamental self-referral movement of both
Natural Law and human intelligence (1995, pp. 96–7).
The best literature allows one to feel this complete range of consciousness.
Maharishi says, “so literature is a path in which pure consciousness flows, and it flows
on both levels, sound and meaning, comprehending the entirety of the value of consciousness,
the entirety of life” (1976). The moral quality of literature is thus not in the
didactic nature of its message, but in its whole effect on the psychophysiology. (See
Steele.)
The Psychophysiology of Reading
Literature is not read with the mind only but with the whole body as well. Emily
Dickinson said that the way she knew true poetry was that it “took off the top of her
head” and made her so cold no fire could warm her. Keats’ famous dictum that he did
not count anything as truth unless it had been tested on his pulses illustrates a common
expectation of literature to attune us to our own best rhythms. Whitman wrote in his
notebook how poetry should affect one’s self: “Test of a poem. How far it can elevate,
enlarge, purify, deepen and make happy the attributes of the body and soul” (quoted in
Kaplan, 1980, p. 187).
Bliss becomes lively when a reader is touched by the presence in language from a
great literary master. Harold Bloom has called contemporary literary study a “repression
of the aesthetic”; he says we who subscribe to this position must return to reading aesthetically
“to learn how to talk to ourselves and how to endure ourselves. The true use
of Shakespeare or of Cervantes, of Homer or of Dante, of Chaucer or of Rabelais, is to
augment one’s own growing inner self.” George Steiner has accused contemporary
readers of being embarrassed by the aesthetic experience because it is humbling—it
touches one and changes one’s perceptions of life (1989, p. 143). Aesthetic presence is
only available, he says, to one who approaches the text with cortesia, “the tact of the
heart,” a movement of courtesy and trust. The aesthetic experience is thus “an exchange
39
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
of liberties” between author and reader, both of whom must give so both can receive
(1989, pp. 154–55).
Steiner is one critic who tries to recover presence in language by putting the responsibility
on the reader, though he admits his is “a wager on transcendence” (1989, p. 4).
Eagleton’s approach to aesthetics is “a wager on the body.” The study of aesthetics continues
to be one of wagers and speculations. A fruitful direction for future research in
aesthetics must come from a more solid foundation—from trained and integrated minds
and nervous systems that spontaneously fathom the dynamics of the play of language.
This, far from describing some elitist corps of critics, should describe the “normal”
foundation provided to every student of literature, as Maharishi has remarked (1974,
1976). The student whose education is grounded in “self-culture” is the one most likely
to make a contribution to the national or regional culture. The conclusion of this paper
finally takes up the challenge education faces today in producing “competent” readers
and writers who can renew American culture and participate in a “new world order.”
Conclusion: The Competent Reader
The loss of the true nature of the aesthetic experience has led to confusion about its
worth to modern society. The poet Kathleen Raine accounts for the difficulties today’s
readers have with poetry, how they have lost the metaphysical dimension of life and the
correspondence theory of language:
The language of symbolic analogy is only possible upon the assumption that these multiple
planes do in fact exist. Those for whom the material world is the only plane of the
real are unable to understand that the symbol—and poetry in the full sense is symbolic
discourse, discourse by analogy—has as its primary purpose the evocation of one plane
in terms of another. . . . Thus the poem is able to create in the reader a sense of the
wholeness and harmony its symbols and its rhythmic unity both realize and affirm. The
language of analogy at once presupposes and establishes relations between the different
orders of the real, an orientation towards a source and a centre. The idea of the metaphysical
is thus implicit in the very figures of symbolic discourse. (1967, p. 108–9)
Raine’s allusion to the planes of discourse is reminiscent of the Vedic levels of language.
But how will today’s society recover the levels of discourse, the presence of language?
Postmodern critics, finding the aesthetic experience obsolete, promote the teaching
of literature as a way to foster “textual power,” the ability to read texts to unmask
political and philosophical assumptions so one can protect oneself in one’s culture
(Scholes, 1985, pp. 1–39). The fear today is that “unity” is oppressive, a forcing of
everyone to think alike. Catherine Belsey describes how new critical practice has outdated
the search for truth and presence in literature (1980, pp. 136–7). The Derridean
notion of “différance” at the basis of signification has had an enormous influence on the
climate of liberal arts education, whether or not one teaches such theories in the classroom.
J. Hillis Miller goes so far as to believe the fragmented, Derridean approach to
knowledge, as applied by Paul de Man’s rhetoricity, will liberate human thinking. By
helping readers to see that literature promises truth but can’t deliver it, postmodernists
40
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
believe readers will confront “the ethical moment” only to discover there is no longer a
basis for cultural myths, but they will still have to act AS IF there were (Miller, 1987,
pp. 33–39, 51–59).
This kind of literary shock treatment completely negates Whitman’s belief in the
inspiration and nourishment that can be derived from language. Many teachers, raised in
the traditional belief of the nourishing power of the arts, are frustrated by current literary
and critical skepticism. John Gardner, for example, desires “an old-fashioned view
of what art is. . . . The traditional view is that true art is moral: it seeks to improve life,
not debase it. . . . Art rediscovers, generation by generation, what is necessary to
humanness” (1978, p. 5). Suzi Gablik calls for a “re-enchantment of art” based on a
quantum view of life which treats the inner and outer worlds as a continuum. She
asserts that the “visionary self—the form of consciousness that has been discredited and
suppressed in modern society” is what we need to see the unity and dance of life (1991,
p. 55). New Humanist Frederick Turner sees a new aesthetic theory emerging, a theory
based on the reunification of science and the humanitites which will give validity to the
arts once more (1991, pp. 3–47). Quantum and chaos theories and eco-paradigms connect
the local and the cosmic, the body and the mind, the human with the environment,
to suggest that literary forms are intimately associated with natural and human cycles
and contribute significantly to a vision of human evolution.
In short, we need to redefine the competent reader as one whose consciousness is
wide awake, as Whitman’s was, to the evolutionary experience offered by art. Whitman
defines the competent reader in his 1855 Preface to Leaves of Grass as one who could
come to the poet on equal terms (1982, p. 14). He insists that “the process of reading is
not a half-sleep . . . the reader is to do something for himself or herself to construct the
poem . . . the text furnishing the hints. Not the book needs so much to be the complete
thing, but the reader of the book does” (“Democratic Vistas,” 1982, pp. 992–3).
Maharishi states that the student of literature must have a level of consciousness as high
as that of the author’s to receive the full value of the author’s language, because “On a
frozen consciousness, on a frozen level of consciousness, the flow is not available”
(1976). Maharishi’s analogy suggests that the consciousness of the reader cannot get in
tune with the rhythm of Natural Law embodied in literature unless it can open itself to
the impulses of Natural Law. “When literature we know to be the flow of consciousness,”
Maharishi continues, “the flow of life, the flow of nature, the flow of infinity,
totality, then we have to study it on the ground of that infinite, unbounded, total value of
consciousness” (1976). For Maharishi, a competent reader is one who enjoys higher
states of consciousness, self-referral consciousness permanently established along with
waking, dreaming, and sleeping. Full enlightenment is the platform from which a true
evaluation of literature, or anything else, can be made.
In his introduction, Maharishi has stated that to properly evaluate the Bhagavad-
Gita, a separate commentary from the point of view of each state of consciousness and
from each system of Indian philosophy is needed, each having its own criteria of validation,
making 24 commentaries in all (1967, p. 14). Each commentary would be based
upon a different level of intimacy with and knowledge of Natural Law. Maharishi has
41
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
described these levels of intimacy as the seven states of consciousness that develop as
human awareness evolves (see Alexander, 1989). In “Song of Myself,” Whitman similarly
describes the relationship of his “self” to the laws of the universe from different
points of view: as a witness, as a participant, as the co-creator, and finally as the container
of everything, including the impulses of natural law that are his own impulses.
(See Cowley, 1959.) He felt that “reading” the laws of the universe was his purpose:
“To me the converging objects of the universe perpetually flow, / All are written to me,
and I must get what the writing means” (1987, p. 25). He observed in “A Backward
Glance Over Travell’d Roads” that what made his poetry different from most poetry
was the attitude of the “I” towards God and the objective universe (1982, pp. 658–9).
Reading, in this sense, is more than the deciphering of a text; it is the ability to interpret
and interact harmoniously with the entire universe. In fact, Maharishi points out that the
goal of being able to read and interpret literature is not to gain intellectual skill as much
as it is to gain refinement and wisdom in one’s actions (1976).
Literature, then, as much as the sciences, must be seen as a study of Natural Law.
Maharishi has pointed out that today “If the existence of the world is threatened, it is
because the knowledge of natural law is superficial; it is knowledge of only the electronic
and nuclear levels” (1986, p. 32). Knowledge in today’s world, in spite of the
enormous and ever-expanding information glut, still contains an immense void—the
knowledge of self-referral consciousness, the unified center of knowledge that can be
developed systematically in human awareness to connect and make sense of the pieces
in the information explosion. Maharishi Vedic Science is a re-enlivenment of the
ancient Vedic Literature which explains the full range of human existence from most
gross to most subtle, as seen in the Vedic model for levels of speech from the grossest
Baikhari to the most refined ParΠlevel. Being all inclusive, Maharishi Vedic Science
has the ability to reconcile opposites such as art and science, because it is the “science
of all aspects of life, subjective, objective, and the connection between subjectivity and
objectivity” (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1986, p. 34). This means that Vedic Science
locates self-referral consciousness to be the same foundation for the sciences as for art,
culture, poetry, language, and sound. Vedic Science, therefore, offers fulfillment to the
Transcendentalists’ self-culture and Whitman’s theory of language because it demonstrates
how language is related to Natural Law and it provides the technologies to experience
that relationship.
This paper has closely examined the viability of Whitman’s language experiment for
unifying America at a time of crisis. Whitman offered self-referral consciousness, the
method implied in “self-culture,” as his solution—a culturing that opens the awareness to
more subtle levels of the self and language. He intuitively knew that it is on the subtler
levels of language that the unifying power of Natural Law could be felt. As Maharishi
has explained, this intuition is verified because language has the same structure as the
self-referral pure consciousness pervading and upholding both Natural Law and human
awareness. Language is a continuum of the values of Natural Law. Language used effectively
can give a reader the experience of “hearing” simultaneously both the gross and
refined levels of language. Such an experience of literature cultures the aesthetic
response—the movement of awareness toward a unified Self, and provides the reader
42
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
with a taste of higher, more integrated states of consciousness. Both nineteenth-century
Transcendentalism and Maharishi Vedic Science promote the inner unity and harmony of
the individual as a prerequisite to outer harmony in culture. This is self-culture, what
Maharishi calls a society supported by Natural Law; it is the balance between individual
and society that cannot be struck without the integration of each citizen.
Whitman’s “Personalism” and the Transcendentalists’ self-culture together form a
visionary model for the full development of the individual to fulfill the goal of democracy.
However, that goal will forever remain unfulfilled without a pragmatic means to
transform the individual—the kernel of society—through a verifiable method to experience
the basis of life, the state of self-referral consciousness. The Transcendental
Meditation technique and the advanced Transcendental Meditation-SidhiSM program
have been proven in countless scientific studies to bring a practitioner to self-referral
consciousness, and Maharishi Vedic Science is the most complete and far-reaching
intellectual elaboration on Self-knowledge in modern history (see Dillbeck, 1988;
Wallace, 1986).
Whitman believed the fulfillment of both individual and society was by means of a
spiritual democracy that could be achieved through language and poetry, through “competent
readers” who could fathom the depth and unity of themselves as well as the
diverse but unified text of their culture. In his theory of Personalism, Whitman predicted
that a science would someday emerge that would expand its vistas to include the subtler
forces of Nature, including God, and that such a science would be the true foundation
of America (“Preface,” 1982, p. 1003). The science Whitman imagined is a science
of Nature, a science of life that anticipates Maharishi Vedic Science, a science of
Natural Law. The science Maharishi has founded is both theoretical and empirical, a
science that aims to unfold the fullness of both individual and society, a science to complete
Whitman’s prophetic vision of a whole nation engaged in self-culture.
43
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
References
Albanese, C.L. (1988). The spirituality of the transcendentalists. Macon, Georgia: Mercer
University Press.
Alcott, B. (1938). The journals of Bronson Alcott. Ed. Shepard, O. First edition. Boston: Little
Brown.
Alexander, C.N., Boyer, R.W. & Alexander V.K. (1987). Higher states of consciousness in The
Vedic Psychology of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: A theoretical introduction and research review.
Modern Science and Vedic Science, 1, 88–126.
Alexander, C.N., & Boyer, R.W. (1989). Seven states of consciousness: Unfolding the full potential
of the cosmic psyche in individual life through Maharishi’s Vedic Psychology. Modern
Science and Vedic Science, 2, 325–371.
Allen, G.W. (1987). The new Walt Whitman handbook. New York:New York University Press.
Armstrong, I. (1982). Language as living form in nineteenth-century poetry. Sussex: The
Harvester Press.
Bauerlein, M. (1980). Whitman’s language of the self. American Imago, 44, 129–148.
Belsey, C. (1980). Critical practice. New York: Methuen.
Black, S. (1969). Whitman and the failure of mysticism: Identity and identification in ‘Song of
Myself.’ Walt Whitman Review, 15, 223–230.
Bloom, H. (1994). The western canon. New York: Harcourt Brace & Co.
Bruder, H. (1986). Transcendental tongue of clay: Deconstructing Whitman’s voice. Pompa:
13–22.
Byers, T. B. (1989). What I cannot say: Self, word, and world in Whitman, Stevens, and Merwin.
Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Carlyle, T. (1987). Sartor resartus. New York: Oxford University Press. (Originally published
1834).
Chandler, K. (1987). Modern science and Vedic science: An introduction. Modern Science and
Vedic Science, 1, 5–26.
Chari, V.K. (1964). Whitman in the light of Vedantic mysticism—An interpretation. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press.
Chari, V.K. (1994). Whitman and criticism in the light of Indian poetics [theory of rasa] in Walt
Whitman: The centennial essays. Ed. Fulsom, E. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press.
Christy, A. (1932). The orient in American transcendentalism: A study of Emerson, Thoreau, and
Alcott. New York: Columbia Press.
Cowley, M. (1959). Introduction. Walt Whitman’s leaves of grass—The first (1855) edition.
NewYork: Viking.
Dillbeck, M. (1988). The self-interacting dynamics of consciousness as the source of the creative
process in nature and in human life: The mechanics of individual intelligence arising from the
field of cosmic intelligence—the cosmic psyche. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 2,
245–278
Eagleton, T. (1990). The ideology of the aesthetic. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Emerson, R.W. (1971). Nature. The Collected Works, vol. 1. (R.E. Spiller & A. Ferguson, (Eds.).
Cambridge: The Belknap Press. (Originally published 1836 and 1837)
Emerson, R.W. (1971). The American scholar. The Collected Works, vol. 1. (R.E. Spiller & A.
Ferguson, (Eds.). Cambridge: The Belknap Press. (Originally published 1836 and 1837)
Emerson, R.W. (1979). The Oversoul. The Collected Works, vol. 2. (J. Slater & A.R. Ferguson,
(Eds.). Cambridge: The Belknap Press. (Originally published 1841)
Emerson, R.W. (1983). The Poet The Collected Works, vol. 3. (J. Slater & A.R. Ferguson,
(Eds.).Cambridge: The Belknap Press. (Originally published 1844)
Emerson, R.W. (1938). Self-Culture. Young Emerson speaks: Unpublished discourses on many
subjects. Ed. Cushman, A. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. (Original sermon given 1827).
44
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Fisher, P. (1988). Democratic social space: Whitman, Melville, and the promise of American
transparency. Representations, 24, 60–101.
Fuller, M. (1992). Woman in the nineteenth century. In J. Steele (Ed.), The essential Margaret
Fuller. (pp. 243–349). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. (Originally published
1844)
Fulsom, E. (1994). Introduction. In Walt Whitman: The centennial essays. Iowa City, IA:
University of Iowa Press.
Gablik, S. (1991). The Re-enchantment of art. London: Thames and Hudson.
Gardner, J. (1978). On moral fiction. New York: Basic Books.
Gatta, J., Jr. (1985). Whitman’s re-vision of Emersonian ecstasy in “Song of Myself.” Walt
Whitman here and now. Ed. Krieg, J. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Gelderloos, P. and van den Berg, W. (1989). Maharishi’s TM-Sidhi program: Participating in the
infinite creativity of nature to enliven the totality of the cosmic psyche in all aspects of life.
Modern Science and Vedic Science, 2, 373–412
Gura, P. (1979). The transcendentalists and language: The Unitarian exegetical background.
Studies in the American Renaissance. Ed. Myerson, J. Boston: Twayne.
Gura, P. (1981). The wisdom of words: Language, theology, and literature in the New England
renaissance. Middletown, CT: Weslyan University Press.
Hagelin, J. S. (1989). Restructuring physics from its foundation in light of Maharishi’s Vedic
Science. Modern Science and Vedic Science, 3, 3–72.
Haney, W. S., II. (1981). “Song of Myself”: The touch of consciousness. Studies in English, New
series, 2, 64–70.
Haney, W. S., II. (1989). The theory of deconstruction and Maharishi’s Vedic Science. Modern
Science and Vedic Science, 2, 415–441.
Heim, M. (1987). Electronic language: A philosophical study of word processing. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press.
Hollis, C. (1983). Language and style in “Leaves of Grass.” Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State
University Press.
Hutchinson, G. (1986). The ecstatic Whitman—literary shamanism and the crisis of the union.
Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press.
Johnson, D. (1975). The effect of suspension of dots, parentheses and italics on the lyricism of
“Song of Myself.” Walt Whitman Review, 21, 47–58.
Kaplan, J. (1980). Walt Whitman: A life. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Keats, J. (1958). “Endymion.” In H.W. Garrod, (Ed.), Complete works. 2nd edition. London:
Oxford Clarendon Press.
Kuebrich, D. (1988). Minor prophesy: Walt Whitman’s new American religion. Bloomington, IN:
University Press.
Larson, K.C. (1988). Whitman’s drama of consensus. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Levine, H. (1987). Union and disunion in ‘“Song of Myself.” American Literature, 59,4
570–589.
Loving, J. (1982). Emerson, Whitman, and the American muse. Chapel Hill, NC: University of
North Carolina Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1963). The science of Being and art of living. Livingston Manor, NY:
Maharishi International University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1967). Bhagavad-Gita: A new translation and commentary with
Sanskrit text, chapters 1–6. Livingston Manor, NY: Maharishi International University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1971a). Poetry and the Vedas. [Videotaped lecture, 26 July 1971,
45
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Amherst, Massachusetts].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1971b). The relationship between name and form in the Veda.
[Videotaped lecture, August 12, 1971, Arcana, California].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1972a). The phonology of creation. [Videotaped lecture, 28 December,
1972, La Antilla, Spain].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1972b). Poetry and the Veda: Part I. [Audiotaped lecture, December
22, 1972, La Antilla, Spain].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1972c). Poetry and the Veda: Part II. [Audiotaped lecture, December
22, 1972, La Antilla, Spain].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1974). The nature of learning and the process of knowledge.
[Videotaped lecture with Walter Koch, August 22, 1974, Arosa, Switzerland].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1975a). Literature and the Science of Creative Intelligence: The link
between objective reality and universality. [Videotaped lecture, September, 1975, Fairfield,
Iowa].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1975b). Art and the Science of Creative Intelligence: Art for articulate
life. [Videotaped lecture, September, 1975, Fairfield, Iowa].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1976). The quantum theory of literature: The flow of consciousness is
at the basis of all literary expression. [Videotaped lecture with Professor Peter Malekin, July
6, 1976, Seelisberg, Switzerland].
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1977). Creating an ideal society: A global undertaking. West
Germany: Maharishi European Research University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1978). Enlightenment to every individual; invincibility to every nation.
West Germany: Maharishi European Research University.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1982). Maharishi’s formula for world peace: Alliance with natural law.
U.S.A.: Age of Enlightenment Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1986). Life supported by natural law: lectures by His Holiness
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi to the world assembly on Vedic Science July 9–17, 1985. Washington,
D.C. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi International University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1992). Maharishi’s absolute theory of government: Automation in
administration. Vlodrop, The Netherlands: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1994). Vedic knowledge for everyone: Maharishi Vedic University:
Introduction. Vlodrop, The Netherlands: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. (1995). Maharishi University of Management: Wholeness on the move.
Maharishi Veda Vigyan Vishwa Vidya Peetham, India: Age of Enlightenment Publications.
McKusick, J. C. (1986). Coleridge’s philosophy of language. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Miller, J. E., Jr. (1957). A critical guide to “Leaves of Grass.” Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Miller, J. Hillis. (1987). The ethics of reading. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nader, T. (1995). Human physiology: Expression of Veda and the Vedic Literature. 2nd edition.
Vlodrop, The Netherlands: Maharishi Vedic University Press.
Nahal, C. (1988). Walt Whitman and the evolution of the spirit. West Hills Review, 8, 1–9.
Nambiar, O.K. (1966). Walt Whitman and yoga. Bangalore: Jeevan Publications.
Orme-Johnson, R. (1987). A unified field theory of literature. Modern Science and Vedic Science,
1, 323–373.
Pease, D. (1987). Visionary compacts: American renaissance writing in cultural context.
Madison,WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
46
MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE
Plato. (1937). Cratylus. In The dialogues of Plato. 2 vols. (B. Jowett, Trans.). New York: Random
House.
Price, K. (1990). Whitman and tradition: The poet in his century. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Qi, Li Shi. (1987). Whitman’s poetry of internationalism. West Hills Review, 7, 103–110.
Raine, K. (1967). Defending ancient springs. London: Oxford University Press.
Rajasekharaiah, T. R. (1970). The roots of Whitman’s grass. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson
University Press.
Renner, D.K. (1984). Tradition for a time of crisis: Whitman’s prophetic stance. In J. Wojcik &
R. Frontain (Eds.), Poetic Prophecy in Western Literature. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh
Dickinson Press.
Reynolds, D.S. (1988). Whitman’s America: A revaluation of the cultural backgrounds of
“Leaves of Grass.” Mickle Street Review, 9,2, 5–17.
Sarracino, C. (1987). Figures of transcendence in Whitman’s poetry. Walt Whitman Quarterly
Review, 5,1, 1–11.
Scholes, R. (1985). Textual power: Literary theory and the teaching of English. New Haven
University Press.
Sharma, A. (1988). The influence of the Bhagavadgita on literature written in English. (T.R.
Sharma, Ed.). Meerut, India: Shalabh Press.
Steele, J. (1987). The Representation of the Self in the American renaissance. Chapel Hill, NC:
University of North Carolina Press.
Steiner, G. (1989). Real presences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tennyson, A.(1973).Gareth and Lynette. In Pfordresher, J., Ed. A variorum edition of Tennyson’s
“Idylls of the King.” New York: Columbia University Press. (Originally published 1872)
Thiher, A. (1984). Words in reflection: Modern language theory and postmodern fiction.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Thoreau, H.D. (1971). Walden. Ed. Shanley, L. J. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Thoreau, H.D. (1981). Journal, vol. 1, 1837–1844. (E.H. Witherall et al., Eds.). Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Thoreau, H.D. (1990). Journal, vol. 3, 1848–1851. (R. Sattelmeyer et al., Eds). Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Turner, F. (1991). Rebirth of value: Meditations on beauty, ecology, religion, and education.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Wallace, R. K. (1986). The neurophysiology of enlightenment. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi
International University Press.
Wallace, R. K., Orme-Johnson, D. and Dillbeck, M. eds. (1976). Scientific research on
Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program, collected papers, Volumes
1–5. Fairfield, IA: Maharishi International University Press.
Warren, J.P. (1990). Walt Whitman’s language experiment. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania
State University Press.
Weisbuch, R. (1986). Atlantic double cross: American literature and British influence in the age
of Emerson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wheat, E.M. (1987). Whitman’s “language experiment and the making of a therapeutic political
Epic” Midwest Quarterly, 28, 437–454.
Whitman, W. (1928). Walt Whitman’s workshop: A collection of unpublished manuscripts.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Whitman, W. (1980). Leaves of Grass: A textual variorum of the printed poems. 3 vols. Sculley,
Bradley, et al., Eds.). New York: New York University Press. (Originally published 1855)
Whitman, W. (1982). Complete poetry and collected prose. (J. Kaplan, Ed.). New York: The
Library of America Edition, Viking Press.
47
WHITMAN, TRANSCENDENTALISM AND THE AMERICAN DREAM
Whitman, W. (1984). Rambles among words: Notebooks and unpublished prose manuscripts. vol.

5. (E. Grier, Ed.). New York: New York University Press. (Originally published 1864)
   Whitman, W. (1987). An American primer with facsimiles of the original manuscript. (H.
   Traubel, Ed.) Afterword by Allen, G.W. Stevens Point, WI: Holy Cow! Press. (Originally published
   1904)
   Wong, H. (1988). This old theory broach’d anew: Darwinism and Whitman’s poetic program.
   Walt Whitman Quarterly Review, 5,4, 27–39.
   48
   MODERN SCIENCE AND VEDIC SCIENCE