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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

“Pagan” redirects here. For other uses, see Pagan (disambiguation).

A marble statue of Jupiter, king of the gods in Roman paganism

Paganism (from Latin paganus ‘rural, rustic’, later ‘civilian’) is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism,[1] or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the Roman Empire, individuals fell into the pagan class either because they were increasingly rural and provincial relative to the Christian population, or because they were not milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[2][3] Alternative terms used in Christian texts were hellene, gentile, and heathen.[1] Ritual sacrifice was an integral part of ancient Greco-Roman religion[4] and was regarded as an indication of whether a person was pagan or Christian.[4] Paganism has broadly connoted the “religion of the peasantry“.[1][5]

During and after the Middle Ages, the term paganism was applied to any non-Christian religion, and the term presumed a belief in false gods.[6][7] The origin of the application of the term “pagan” to polytheism is debated.[8] In the 19th century, paganism was adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the ancient world. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-descriptor by practitioners of modern paganism, modern pagan movements and polytheistic reconstructionists. Modern pagan traditions often incorporate beliefs or practices, such as nature worship, that are different from those of the largest world religions.[9][10]

Contemporary knowledge of old pagan religions and beliefs comes from several sources, including anthropological field research records, the evidence of archaeological artifacts, and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to Classical antiquity. Most modern pagan religions existing today express a worldview that is pantheistic, panentheistic, polytheistic, or animistic, but some are monotheistic.[11][12][13]

Nomenclature and etymology

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Reconstruction of the Parthenon, on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece

Pagan

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Further information: Pagus

It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century, people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practiced. The notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition. As such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense.

— Owen Davies, Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, 2011[14]

The term pagan derives from Late Latin paganus, revived during the Renaissance. Itself deriving from classical Latin pagus which originally meant ‘region delimited by markers’, paganus had also come to mean ‘of or relating to the countryside’, ‘country dweller’, ‘villager’; by extension, ‘rustic‘, ‘unlearned’, ‘yokel‘, ‘bumpkin‘; in Roman military jargon, ‘non-combatant’, ‘civilian’, ‘unskilled soldier’. It is related to pangere (‘to fasten’, ‘to fix or affix’) and ultimately comes from Proto-Indo-European *pag- (‘to fix’ in the same sense):[15]

The adoption of paganus by the Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (ethnikos) remained the word for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace.

— Peter Brown, Late Antiquity, 1999[16]

Medieval writers often assumed that paganus as a religious term was a result of the conversion patterns during the Christianization of Europe, where people in towns and cities were converted more easily than those in remote regions, where old ways tended to remain. However, this idea has multiple problems. First, the word’s usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during Early Christianity. Third, unlike words such as rusticitas, paganus had not yet fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.[17]

Paganus more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via Roman military jargon (see above). Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as Milites Christi (soldiers of Christ).[15][17] A good example of Christians still using paganus in a military context rather than a religious one is in Tertullian‘s De Corona Militis XI.V, where the Christian is referred to as paganus (civilian):[17]

Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.[18]With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.[19]

Paganus acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.[17] As early as the 5th century, paganos was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. Following the sack of Rome by the Visigoths just over fifteen years after the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I,[20] murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater care of the city than the Christian God. In response, Augustine of Hippo wrote De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos (‘The City of God against the Pagans’). In it, he contrasted the fallen “city of Man” with the “city of God”, of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were “not of the city” or “rural”.[21][22][23]

The term pagan was not attested in the English language until the 17th century.[24] In addition to infidel and heretic, it was used as one of several pejorative Christian counterparts to goy (גוי / נכרי) as used in Judaism, and to kafir (كافر, ‘unbeliever’) and mushrik (مشرك, ‘idolater’) as in Islam.[25]

Hellene

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Meeting between Thyrsus, YSEE, and Pietas Comunità Gentile

Further information: Hellenes (religion)

In the Latin-speaking Western Roman Empire of the newly Christianizing Roman Empire, Koine Greek became associated with the traditional polytheistic religion of Ancient Greece and was regarded as a foreign language (lingua peregrina) in the west.[26] By the latter half of the 4th century in the Greek-speaking Eastern Empire, pagans were—paradoxically—most commonly called Hellenes (Ἕλληνες, lit. “Greeks”) The word had almost entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.[27][28] It retained that meaning for roughly the first millennium of Christianity.

This was influenced by Christianity’s early members, who were Jewish. The Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religion rather than ethno–cultural standards, and early Jewish Christians would have done the same. Since Hellenic culture was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman east, they referred to pagans as Hellenes. Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for non-Jews and adapted it to refer to non-Christians with whom they were in contact. This usage is recorded in the New Testament. In the Pauline epistles, Hellene is almost always juxtaposed with Hebrew regardless of actual ethnicity[28]

The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influential Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[27]

The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had a chilling effect on Hellenic culture by the late 4th century.[27]

By late antiquity, however, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself as a Hellene.[29] The long-established use of Greek both in and around the Eastern Roman Empire as a lingua franca ironically allowed it to instead become central in enabling the spread of Christianity—as indicated for example, by the use of Greek for the Epistles of Paul.[30] In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,[31] and the Acta Conciliorum (“Acts of the Church Councils”) were recorded originally in Greek and then translated into other languages.[32]

Heathen

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“Heathen” comes from Old English: hæðen (not Christian or Jewish); cf. Old Norse heiðinn. This meaning for the term originated from Gothic haiþno (gentile woman) being used to translate Hellene[33] in Wulfila’s Bible, the first translation of the Bible into a Germanic language. This may have been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the time used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothic haiþi (dwelling on the heath). However, this is not attested. It may even be a borrowing of Greek ἔθνος (ethnos) via Armenian hethanos.[34]

The term has recently been revived in the forms “Heathenry” and “Heathenism” (often but not always capitalized), as alternative names for the modern Germanic pagan movement, adherents of which may self-identify as Heathens.[citation needed]

Definition

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It is perhaps misleading even to say that there was such a religion as paganism at the beginning of [the Common Era] … It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, before their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is normally used today. They had no tradition of discourse about ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical debate or antiquarian treatise), no organized system of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, above all no commitment to a particular group of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of pagan life, it follows that we should look on paganism quite simply as a religion invented in the course of the second to third centuries AD, in competition and interaction with Christians, Jews and others.

— J A North 1992, 187–88, [35]

Defining paganism is very complex and problematic. Understanding the context of its associated terminology is important.[36] Early Christians referred to the diverse array of cults around them as a single group for reasons of convenience and rhetoric.[37] While paganism generally implies polytheism, the primary distinction between classical pagans and Christians was not one of monotheism versus polytheism, as not all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in a supreme deity. However, most such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/daimons—see henotheism—or divine emanations.[13] To Christians, the most important distinction was whether or not someone worshipped the one true God. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, or atheist) were outsiders to the Church and thus considered pagan.[38] Similarly, classical pagans would have found it peculiar to distinguish groups by the number of deities followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as the College of Pontiffs or Epulones) and cult practices more meaningful distinctions.[39]

Referring to paganism as a pre-Christian indigenous religion is equally untenable. Not all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.[36]

Owing to the history of its nomenclature, paganism traditionally encompasses the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around the classical world; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavic tribes.[40] However, modern parlance of folklorists and contemporary pagans in particular has extended the original four millennia scope used by early Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far into prehistory.[41]

Perception

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Paganism came to be equated by Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in more mainstream religions. Pagans were usually described in terms of this worldly stereotype, especially among those drawing attention to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism.[42] Thus G. K. Chesterton wrote: “The pagan set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else.”[43] In sharp contrast, Swinburne the poet would comment on this same theme: “Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death.”[44]

Ethnocentrism

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Recently, the ethnocentric and moral absolutist origins of the common usage of the term pagan have been proposed,[45][46] with scholar David Petts noting how, with particular reference to Christianity, “…local religions are defined in opposition to privileged ‘world religions’; they become everything that world religions are not, rather than being explored as a subject in their own right.”[47] In addition, Petts notes how various spiritual, religious, and metaphysical ideas branded as “pagan” from diverse cultures were studied in opposition to Abrahamism in early anthropology, a binary he links to ethnocentrism and colonialism.[48]

History

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Prehistoric

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Bronze Age to Early Iron Age

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Depiction from 1887 showing two Roman women offering a sacrifice to the goddess Vesta

Ancient history

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Classical antiquity

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Main articles: Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Hellenistic religion, and Roman imperial cult

Ludwig Feuerbach defined the paganism of classical antiquity, which he termed Heidentum (‘heathenry’) as “the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man”,[49] qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined by ethnicity, i.e., As a result, every pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of orthodoxy.[50]

Late Antiquity and Christianization

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Further information: Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism and Hellenic philosophy and Christianity

The developments in the religious thought of the far-flung Roman Empire during Late Antiquity need to be addressed separately, because this is the context in which Early Christianity itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of pagan developed in the first place. As Christianity emerged from Second Temple Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism, it stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults of Dionysus,[51] Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Gnosticism, and Manichaeanism.[citation needed] Dionysus in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of Jesus the wandering rabbi into the image of Christ the Logos, the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[52][53] Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Marriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[54] The scene in The Bacchae wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.[54][55][56]

Men of Theth (Shala) practicing the gjâmë – the Albanian lamentation of the dead – in 1937. The earliest figurative representations of this practice in traditional Albanian-inhabited regions appear on Dardanian funerary stelae of classical antiquity.[57]

Proto-Albanian speakers were Christianized under the Latin sphere of influence, specifically in the 4th century CE, as shown by the basic Christian terms in Albanian, which are of Latin origin and entered Proto-Albanian before the Gheg–Tosk dialectal diversification.[58][59] Regardless of the Christianization, ancient paganism persisted among Albanians, and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior[60] – where Albanian folklore evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated tribal culture and society[61] – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, and later Muslim and Marxist beliefs, that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.[62] The Albanian traditional customary law (Kanun) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the Albanian tribes.[63] Historically, the Christian clergy has vigorously fought, but without success, the pagan rituals practiced by Albanians for traditional feasts and particular events, especially the fire rituals (Zjarri).[64][65]

Postclassical history

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Pagan Continuity in Mani and Mistra (800–1100) Christianity was introduced late in Mani, with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monk Nikon “the Metanoite” (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantly pagan Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries. Patrick Leigh Fermor noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century:

Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-troglodytic Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival of St. Augustine in far-away Kent.[66]

According to Constantine VII in De Administrando Imperio, the Maniots were referred to as ‘Hellenes’ and only fully Christianized in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region’s mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire’s Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life of Gemistos Plethon.

Another safe area for the pagans was the city of Harran which, Despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within the Diyar Mudar region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During the First Fitna, the people of Harran sided with Mu’awiya I over Ali at the Battle of Siffin in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.[67]

Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city’s pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire’s eastern provinces.[68] The city’s prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 under Umar II, attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.[69]

Although Harran lost its capital status under the Abbasid Caliphate, it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.[70] The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially under Al-Ma’mun in 830.[71] Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.

The medieval church accused sects deemed heretical such as the Waldensians and Cathars of participating in pagan fertility rites.[72]

Islam in Arabia

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See also: Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia

Arab paganism gradually disappeared during Muhammad‘s era through Islamization.[73][74] The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th, and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.[75] After Muhammad had conquered Mecca he set out to convert the pagans.[76][77][78] One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the Demolition of Dhul Khalasa. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. Dhul Khalasa is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as the Ka’ba of Yemen, built and worshipped by polytheist tribes.[79][80][81]

Modern history

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Early Modern Renaissance

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The Ordine Osirideo Egizio claimed direct descent from a colony of Alexandrian priests who, fleeing persecution after the 4th century AD, sought refuge in Naples, preserving ancient pagan liturgies almost intact.[82] Through the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries) these rites persisted in secret esoteric circles and re-emerged during the Renaissance (14th–17th centuries), later inspiring figures such as Raimondo di Sangro (1710–1771), Prince of Sansevero.[83]

Celebration of the 2777th Natale di Roma at the Circus Maximus

Interest in reviving ancient Roman religious traditions can be traced to the Renaissance, with figures such as Gemistus Pletho and Julius Pomponius Laetus advocating for a revival,[84] when Renaissance magic was practiced as a revival of Greco-Roman magic. Gemistus Plethon, who was from Mistras (near the Mani Peninsula—where paganism had endured until the 12th century) encouraged the Medici, descendants of the Maniot Latriani dynasty, to found the Neoplatonic Academy in Florence, helping to spark the Renaissance. In addition Julius Pomponius Laetus (student of Pletho) established the Roman academy which secretly celebrated the Natale di Roma, a festival linked to the foundation of Rome, and the birthday of Romulus.[85][86] The Academy was dissolved in 1468 when Pope Paul II ordered the arrest and execution of some of the members, Pope Sixtus IV allowed Laetus to open the academy again until the Sack of Rome in 1527.

After the French Revolution, the French lawyer Gabriel André Aucler (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the name Quintus Nautius and sought to revive paganism, styling himself as its leader. He designed religious clothing and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he published La Thréicie, presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed by Gérard de Nerval in Les Illuminés (1852).[87] Admiring ancient Greece and ancient Rome, Aucler supported the French Revolution and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.[88] He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performed Orphic rites at his home.[89] His followers were mainly his household.[87] In 1799, he published La Thréicie, advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promoting universal animation.[90]

In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological aspect to an ethnological one, and religions began to be understood as part of the ethnic identities of peoples, and the study of the religions of so-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical origin of religion. Jean Bodin viewed pagan mythology as a distorted version of Christian truths.[91] Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc saw the pagan religions of Africa of his day as relics that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.[92]

Late Modern Romanticism

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The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by the Brothers Grimm, especially Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology, and Elias Lönnrot with the compilation of the Kalevala. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev, the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, and the Englishman Joseph Jacobs.[93]

Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of Romantic nationalism and the rise of the nation state in the context of the 1848 revolutions, leading to the creation of national epics and national myths for the various newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were also common in the musical nationalism of the period. Paganism resurfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th-century Romanticism, in particular in the context of the literary Celtic, Slavic and Viking revivals, which portrayed historical Celtic, Slavic and Germanic polytheists as noble savages.

Great God! I’d rather be
A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;
So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,
Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;
Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea;
Or hear old Triton blow his wreathèd horn.

— William Wordsworth, “The World Is Too Much with Us“, lines 9–14

In Italy, with the fall of the Papal States the process of Italian unification fostered anti-clerical sentiment among the intelligentsia. The Brotherhood of Myriam, founded in 1899, inheriting its lineage from the Ordine Osirideo Egizio, can be understood as a form of modern neopaganism that revives and adapts ancient Egyptian and Greco-Egyptian rituals for contemporary spiritual practice.[94][95]Intellectuals like archaeologist Giacomo Boni and writer Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo promoted the restoration of Roman religious practices.[96][97] In 1927, philosopher and esotericist Julius Evola founded the Gruppo di Ur in Rome, along with its journal Ur (1927–1928), involving figures like Arturo Reghini. In 1928, Evola published Imperialismo Pagano, advocating Italian political paganism to oppose the Lateran Pacts. The journal resumed in 1929 as Krur.

A mysterious document published in Krur in 1929, attributed to orientalist Leone Caetani, suggested that Italy’s World War I victory and the rise of fascism were influenced by Etruscan-Roman rites.[98]

Late 20th century

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The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in neo-Druidism as well as the rise of modern Germanic paganism in the United States and in Iceland. In the 1970s, Wicca was notably influenced by feminism, leading to the creation of an eclectic, Goddess-worshipping movement known as Dianic Wicca.[99] The 1979 publication of Margot Adler‘s Drawing Down the Moon and Starhawk‘s The Spiral Dance opened a new chapter in public awareness of paganism.[100] With the growth and spread of large, pagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s, public varieties of Wicca continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by the New Age and counter-culture movements. These open, unstructured or loosely structured traditions contrast with British Traditional Wicca, which emphasizes secrecy and initiatory lineage.[101]

The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years following fascism was largely driven by Julius Evola. By the late 1960s, a renewed “operational” interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of the Gruppo di Ur.[102] Evola’s writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, sexual magic, and private ritual nudity. This period saw the rise of the Gruppo dei Dioscuri in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such as L’Impeto della vera cultura and Rivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione, before fading from public view.[103] The Evolian journal Arthos, founded in Genoa in 1972 by Renato del Ponte, expressed significant interest in Roman religion. In 1984, the Gruppo Arx revived Messina’s Dioscuri activities, and Reghini’s Pythagorean Association briefly resurfaced in Calabria and Sicily from 1984 to 1988, publishing Yghìeia.

Other publications include the Genoese Il Basilisco (1979–1989), which released several works on pagan studies, and Politica Romana (1994–2004), seen as a high-level Romano-pagan journal. One prominent figure was actor Roberto Corbiletto, who died in a mysterious fire in 1999.The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and reconstructionist pagan traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other pagan movements.[101]

By the time of the collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991, freedom of religion was legally established across Russia and a number of other newly independent states, allowing for the growth in both Christian and non-Christian religions.[104]

Modern paganism

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Main article: Modern paganism

21st century

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Summer Solstice Ritual held in collaboration by YSEE and Pietas Comunità Gentile (2023)

In the 2000s, Associazione Tradizionale Pietas began reconstructing temples across Italy and sought legal recognition from the state, drawing inspiration from similar groups like YSEE in Greece. In 2023, Pietas participated in the ECER meeting, resulting in the signing of the Riga Declaration, which calls for the recognition of European ethnic religions.[105] Public rituals, such as those celebrating the ancient festival of the Natale di Roma, have also resumed in recent years.[106][107][108]

2023 European Congress of the Ethnic Religions (ECER) in Riga

The idea of practicing Roman religion in the modern era has spread beyond Italy, with practitioners found in countries across Europe and the Americas. The most prominent international organization is Nova Roma, founded in 1998, with active groups worldwide.[109]

Some megaliths are believed to have religious significance.
Children standing with The Lady of Cornwall in a neopagan ceremony in England
Neopagan handfasting ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005)

Modern paganism, or Neopaganism, includes reconstructed practice such as Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism, Hellenism, Slavic Native Faith, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, or heathenry, as well as modern eclectic traditions such as Wicca and its many offshoots, Neo-Druidism, and Discordianism.

However, there often exists a distinction or separation between some polytheistic reconstructionists such as Hellenism and revivalist neopagans like Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as the importance of accurate orthopraxy according to ancient sources available, the use and concept of magic, which calendar to use and which holidays to observe, as well as the use of the term pagan itself.[110][111][112]

In 1717 John Toland became the first Chosen Chief of the Ancient Druid Order, which became known as the British Circle of the Universal Bond.[113] Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-Druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th century Romanticism and retain noticeable elements of occultism or Theosophy that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural (paganus) folk religion. Most modern pagans, however, believe in the divine character of the natural world and paganism is often described as an Earth religion.[114]

The hammer Mjölnir is one of the primary symbols of Germanic neopaganism.

There are a number of neopagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on one hand and contemporary traditions of folk religion on the other. Isaac Bonewits introduced a terminology to make this distinction.[115]NeopaganismThe overarching contemporary pagan revival movement which focuses on nature-revering/living, pre-Christian religions and/or other nature-based spiritual paths, and frequently incorporating contemporary liberal values[citation needed]. This definition may include groups such as Wicca, Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith.

The Tursaansydän symbol, part of the Finnish neopaganism.

PaleopaganismA retronym coined to contrast with Neopaganism, original polytheistic, nature-centered faiths, such as the pre-Hellenistic Greek and pre-imperial Roman religion, pre-Migration period Germanic paganism as described by Tacitus, or Celtic polytheism as described by Julius Caesar.MesopaganismA group, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This group includes aboriginal Americans as well as Aboriginal Australians, Viking AgeNorse paganism and New Age spirituality. Influences include: Spiritualism, and the many Afro-Diasporic faiths like Haitian Vodou, Santería and Espiritu religion. Isaac Bonewits includes British Traditional Wicca in this subdivision.

Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in their A History of Pagan Europe (1995) classify pagan religions as characterized by the following traits:

  • Polytheism: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (the soft and hard polytheism distinction).
  • Nature-based: Some pagan religions have a concept of the divinity of nature, which they view as a manifestation of the divine, not as the fallen creation found in dualistic cosmology.
  • Sacred feminine: Some pagan religions recognize the female divine principle, identified as the Goddess (as opposed to individual goddesses) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic God.[116]

In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of modern paganism inspired by the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.[117]

In Iceland, the members of Ásatrúarfélagið account for nearly 2% of the total population,[118] therefore being nearly six thousand people. In Lithuania, many people practice Romuva, a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that country. Lithuania was among the last areas of Europe to be Christianized. Heathenry has been established on a formal basis in Australia since at least the 1930s.[119]

Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe

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Further information: Christianization

Reconstructionist groups

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See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Brown, Peter (1999). “Pagan”. In Bowersock, Glen Warren; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (eds.). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press. pp. 625–26. ISBN 978-0-674-51173-6.
  2. ^ J. J. O’Donnell (1977), Paganus: Evolution and Use Archived 29 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Classical Folia, 31: 163–69.
  3. ^ Augustine, Divers. Quaest. 83.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b Jones, Christopher P. (2014). Between Pagan and Christian. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72520-1.
  5. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-162001-0.
  6. ^ Aitamurto, Kaarina (2016). Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie. Routledge. pp. 12–15. ISBN 978-1-317-08443-3.
  7. ^ Owen Davies (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–6, 70–83. ISBN 978-0-19-162001-0.
  8. ^ Davies, Owen (2011). Paganism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191620010.
  9. ^ Paganism, Oxford Dictionary (2014)
  10. ^ Paganism Archived 25 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, Bron Taylor (2010), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199754670
  11. ^ Lewis, James R. (2004). The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-19-514986-6.
  12. ^ Hanegraff, Wouter J. (1006). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Brill. p. 84. ISBN 90-04-10696-0.
  13. ^ Jump up to:a b Cameron 2011, pp. 28, 30.
  14. ^ Davies 2011.
  15. ^ Jump up to:a b Harper, Douglas. “pagan (n.)”. The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  16. ^ Peter Brown, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds., Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, 1999, s.v. Pagan.
  17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Cameron 2011, pp. 14–15.
  18. ^ De Corona Militis XI.V
  19. ^ Ante-Nicene Fathers III, De Corona XI
  20. ^ “”Theodosius I”, The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912″.
  21. ^ “The City of God”. Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, 2003.
  22. ^ Orosius Histories 1. Prol. “ui alieni a civitate dei..pagani vocantur.”
  23. ^ C. Mohrmann, Vigiliae Christianae 6 (1952) 9ff; Oxford English Dictionary, (online) 2nd Edition (1989) Archived 25 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ^ The OED instances Edward Gibbon‘s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, “Chapter XXI: Persecution of Heresy, State of the Church. Part VII” (1776): “The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of Paganism.”
  25. ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (1983). “Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont. Religion” 13:1–17, at p. 3.
  26. ^ Augustine, Confessions 1.14.23; Moatii, “Translation, Migration, and Communication”, p. 112.
  27. ^ Jump up to:a b c Cameron, Alan G.; Long, Jacqueline; Sherry, Lee (1993). “2: Synesius of Cyrene; VI: The Dion“. Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius. University of California Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-520-06550-5.
  28. ^ Jump up to:a b Cameron 2011, pp. 16–17.
  29. ^ Simon Swain, “Defending Hellenism: Philostratus, in Honour of Apollonius”, in Apologetics, p. 173.
  30. ^ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State, p. 5.
  31. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, pp. 97–98.
  32. ^ Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, p. 98.
  33. ^ cf. Mark 7:26
  34. ^ Harper, Douglas. “heathen (n.)”. The Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  35. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 26–27.
  36. ^ Jump up to:a b Davies 2011, Defining paganism.
  37. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 26.
  38. ^ Cameron 2011, pp. 27, 31.
  39. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 29.
  40. ^ Cameron 2011, p. 28.
  41. ^ Davies 2011, Chapter 1: The ancient world.
  42. ^ Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Roma, Gangemi, 2008
  43. ^ Heretics, G. K. Chesterton, 2007, Hendrickson Publishers Inc., p. 88
  44. ^ ‘Hymn to Proserpine’
  45. ^ Hanegraaff, Wouter (2016). “Reconstructing “Religion” from the Bottom Up”. Numen. 63 (5/6): 576–605. doi:10.1163/15685276-12341439. hdl:11245.1/8b66dd94-5e6c-4c56-95ec-dbf822201e46. JSTOR 44505310. S2CID 171686966.
  46. ^ Blumberg, Antonia (27 May 2016). “What Not To Say When You Meet Someone Who Is Pagan”. Huffington Post. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  47. ^ Petts, David (26 May 2011). Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe. London: Bristol Classical Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7156-3754-8.
  48. ^ Kourbage, Melanie. “Kourbage on Petts, ‘Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe'”. Humanities and Social Sciences Online. H-German. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  49. ^ cf. the civil, natural and mythical theologies of Marcus Terentius Varro
  50. ^ A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians 1989, pp. 31 ff.: “The modern emphasis on paganism’s cult acts was also acknowledged by pagans themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians.”
  51. ^ E. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus “two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. […] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos […] represents the culmination of a Pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this Pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of Pagan monotheism.” [1]
  52. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 6. 26. 1–2
  53. ^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2. 34a
  54. ^ Jump up to:a b Wick, Peter (2004). “Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums”. Biblica. 85 (2). Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute: 179–98. Retrieved 10 October 2007.
  55. ^ Studies in Early Christology, by Martin Hengel, 2005, p. 331 (ISBN 0567042804)
  56. ^ Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.
  57. ^ Joseph & Dedvukaj 2024, pp. 1–3.
  58. ^ Malcolm 1998, pp. 36–38.
  59. ^ Fischer & Schmitt 2022, p. 16.
  60. ^ Norris 1993, p. 34.
  61. ^ Elsie 2001, pp. vii–viii.
  62. ^ Norris 1993, p. 34; Qafleshi 2011, pp. 43–71; Hykolli & Krasniqi 2020, p. 78
  63. ^ Tarifa 2008, p. 11.
  64. ^ Tirta 2004, p. 250.
  65. ^ Qafleshi 2011, p. 49.
  66. ^ Leigh Fermor, Patrick (1958). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. John Murray. p. 46.
  67. ^ Pingree 2002, p. 17.
  68. ^ Bosworth 2003, pp. 13–14.
  69. ^ Frew 1999.
  70. ^ Özdeniz et al. 1998, p. 478.
  71. ^ Pingree 2002, p. 23.
  72. ^ Byrne, J.P. (2017). The World of Renaissance Italy: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 626. ISBN 978-1-4408-2960-4. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  73. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2005), The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet, Darussalam Publications, pp. 245–46, ISBN 978-9960-899-55-8
  74. ^ Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz’ 2 (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition Archived 2 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, ISBN 1861796765. (online)
  75. ^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar (Free Version)[permanent dead link], p. 129
  76. ^ Sa’d, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa’d, Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society. p. 380. ASIN B0007JAWMK.
  77. ^ Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Saifur (2005), The Sealed Nectar, Darussalam Publications, p. 269, ISBN 9798694145923
  78. ^ Mufti, M. Mukarram Ahmed (2007), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, p. 103, ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1
  79. ^ Robertson Smith, William (2010). Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. Forgotten Books. p. 297. ISBN 978-1-4400-8379-2.
  80. ^ S. Salibi, Kamal (2007). Who Was Jesus?: Conspiracy in Jerusalem. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-84511-314-8.
  81. ^ Mubarakpuri, Saifur Rahman Al (2002). When the Moon Split. DarusSalam. p. 296. ISBN 978-9960-897-28-8.
  82. ^ Lo Monaco, Gaetano (2000). The Osirian Egyptian Order and the Pythagorean Transmission. Marostica (Vicenza): Letture S…consigliate.
  83. ^ Iah-Hel, ed. (1989). La Pietra Angolare Miriamica. Storia documentata della Fratellanza di Miriam di Giuliano Kremmerz. Viareggio: Rebis.
  84. ^ Cite error: The named reference marre was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  85. ^ Raphael Volaterranus, in his Commentaries presented to Julius II, declared that the enthusiasms of these initiates were “the first step towards doing away with the Faith” (Pastor IV 1894:44).
  86. ^ “La ‘conguira’ degli umanisti: Platina e Pomponio Leto”. Castel Sant’Angelo (in Italian). Rome: castelsantangelo.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
  87. ^ Jump up to:a b Lamoureux 1843, p. 397.
  88. ^ Gaume 1856, p. 208.
  89. ^ Gérardin 1974, p. 226.
  90. ^ Merkin 2014a, p. 257.
  91. ^ Franklin, J.H. (2017). Jean Bodin. Taylor & Francis. p. 413. ISBN 978-1-351-56179-2. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
  92. ^ “It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient paganism in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit.” Peter N. Miller, “History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc’s Africa” Journal of the History of Ideas 67.4 (2006) 675–96.[2]
  93. ^ Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p. 846, ISBN 0-393-97636-X
  94. ^ Iah-Hel, ed. (1989). La Pietra Angolare Miriamica. Storia documentata della Fratellanza di Miriam di Giuliano Kremmerz. Viareggio: Rebis.
  95. ^ Lo Monaco, Gaetano (2000). The Osirian Egyptian Order and the Pythagorean Transmission. Marostica (Vicenza): Letture S…consigliate.
  96. ^ Giudice, Christian (2012). “Pagan Rome was Rebuilt in a Play: Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo and the Representation of Rumon”. The Pomegranate. 14 (2): 212–232. doi:10.1558/pome.v14i2.212. ISSN 1743-1735.
  97. ^ Buscemi, Francesco (2019). “The Sin of Eating Meat: Fascism, Nazism and the Construction of Sacred Vegetarianism”. In Gentilcore, David; Smith, Matthew (eds.). Proteins, Pathologies and Politics: Dietary Innovation and Disease from the Nineteenth Century. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-350-05686-2.
  98. ^ Consolato, Sandro (18 October 2017). “La Grande Guerra degli esoteristi”. Tempi (in Italian).
  99. ^ Adler 2006, pp. 178–239.
  100. ^ Adler 2006, p. ix.
  101. ^ Jump up to:a b Adler 2006, pp. 429–456.
  102. ^ Giudice, Christian (2016). Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy. University of Gothenburg. pp. 19–20.
  103. ^ Del Ponte, Renato (1990). Studi su Evola e la Tradizione (Thesis) (in Italian). Indipendente.
  104. ^ Strmiska 2005, p. 45.
  105. ^ “Riga Declaration”. 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  106. ^ “PROGRAM”. GRUPPO STORICO ROMANO (in Italian). Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  107. ^ “Gruppo Storico Romano for the 2777th Natale di Roma”. Turismo Roma (in Italian). 12 April 2024. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  108. ^ “Natale di Roma all’ETRU”. Museo ETRU (in Italian). Retrieved 4 May 2024.
  109. ^ Chryssides, George D. Historical Dictionary of New Religious Movements (2011, 2nd ed.).
  110. ^ “Hellenismos FAQ”. The Cauldron: A Pagan Forum. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  111. ^ “Pagans”. Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  112. ^ Anschütz, Arlea; Hunt, Stormerne (1997). “Call us Heathens!”. Journal of the Pagan Federation. Archived from the original on 12 July 2013. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  113. ^ “History of modern Paganism”. BBC. 2 October 2002. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
  114. ^ “Pagan beliefs: nature, druids and witches”. BBC Religion & Ethics. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  115. ^ “Defining Paganism: Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-“ Archived 3 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine(Version 2.5.1) 1979, 2007 c.e., Isaac Bonewits
  116. ^ Jones, Prudence; Pennick, Nigel (1995). A History of Pagan Europe. p. 2. Routledge.
  117. ^ “Paganism: Heathenry”. BBC – Religions. Retrieved 25 March 2015.
  118. ^ Statistics Iceland – Statistics >> Population >> Religious organisations Archived 9 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  119. ^ “The Odinic Rite of Australia”. Retrieved 25 March 2015.

References

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  •  The dictionary definition of heathen at Wiktionary
  •  Quotations related to Paganism at Wikiquote
showvtePaganism (and modern paganism)
showvtePagan studies
showvteReligion
showvteReligious slurs
showAuthority control databases 

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