↓
 
Home→New Essays→UNIVERSAL BASIC INCOME

UNIVERSAL BASIC INCOME

56thst.com Posted on by
Wikipedia
The Free Encyclopedia

Search

Contents

hide

Universal basic income

Tools

Appearancehide

Text

  • SmallStandardLarge

Width

  • StandardWide

Color (beta)

  • AutomaticLightDark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

“Basic income” redirects here. For other basic income models, see List of basic income models.

Not to be confused with Unconditional cash transfer or Universal basic services.3-minute video on universal basic income (2013)

In 2013, eight million 5-centime coins (one per inhabitant) were dumped on the Bundesplatz in Bern to support the 2016 Swiss referendum for a basic income (which was rejected 77% – 23%).
Part of a series on
Universalism
Philosophical
Economic and societal
Christian
Other religions
Spiritual
Category
vte

Universal basic income (UBI)[note 1] is a social welfare proposal in which all citizens of a given population regularly receive a minimum income in the form of an unconditional transfer payment, i.e., without a means test or need to perform work.[2][3][4] In contrast, a guaranteed minimum income (GMI) is paid only to those who do not already receive an income that is enough to live on. A UBI would be received independently of any other income. If the level is sufficient to meet a person’s basic needs (i.e., at or above the poverty line), it is considered a full basic income; if it is less than that amount, it is called a partial basic income.[5] As of 2025, no country has implemented a full UBI system, but two countries—Mongolia and Iran—have had a partial UBI in the past.[6] There have been numerous pilot projects,[7] and the idea is discussed in many countries. Some have labelled UBI as utopian due to its historical origin.[8][9][10]

There are several welfare arrangements that can be considered similar to basic income, although they are not unconditional. Many countries have a system of child benefit, which is essentially a basic income for guardians of children. A pension may be a basic income for retired persons. There are also quasi-basic income programs that are limited to certain population groups or time periods, like Bolsa Familia in Brazil, which is concentrated on the poor, or the Thamarat Program in Sudan, which was introduced by the transitional government to ease the effects of the economic crisis inherited from the Bashir regime.[11] Likewise, the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic prompted some countries to send direct payments to its citizens. The Alaska Permanent Fund is a fund for all residents of the U.S. state of Alaska which averages $1,600 annually (in 2019 currency), and is sometimes described as the only example of a real basic income in practice. A negative income tax (NIT) can be viewed as a basic income for certain income groups in which citizens receive less and less money until this effect is reversed the more a person earns.[12]

Critics claim that a basic income at an appropriate level for all citizens is not financially feasible, fear that the introduction of a basic income would lead to fewer people working, and consider it socially unjust that everyone should receive the same amount of money regardless of their individual needs. Proponents say it is indeed financeable, arguing that such a system, instead of many individual means-tested social benefits, would eliminate more expensive social administration and bureaucratic efforts, and expect that unattractive jobs would have to be better paid and their working conditions improved because there would have to be an incentive to do them when already receiving an income, which would increase the willingness to work. Advocates also argue that a basic income is fair because it ensures that everyone has a sufficient financial basis to build on and less financial pressure, thus allowing people to find work that suits their interests and strengths.[13]

Early examples of unconditional payments to citizens date back to antiquity, and the first proposals to introduce a regular unconditionally paid income for all citizens were developed and disseminated between the 16th and 18th centuries. After the Industrial Revolution, public awareness and support for the concept increased. At least since the mid-20th century, basic income has repeatedly been the subject of political debates. In the 21st century, several discussions are related to the debate about basic income, including those concerning the automation of large parts of the human workforce through artificial intelligence (AI), and associated questions regarding the future of the necessity of work. A key issue in these debates is whether automation and AI will significantly reduce the number of available jobs and whether a basic income could help prevent or alleviate such problems by allowing everyone to benefit from a society’s wealth, as well as whether a UBI could be a stepping stone to a resource-based or post-scarcity economy.

History

Antiquity

See also: Cura Annonae

Ancient Egypt had a strong, unified theocratic state that owned key parts of the Egyptian economy, including granaries that dispensed grain to the public during hard times.[14]

In a 46 BC triumph, Roman general and dictator Julius Caesar gave each common Roman citizen 100 denarii. Following his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar’s will left 300 sestertii (or 75 denarii) to each citizen.[15] Trajan, emperor of Rome from 98 to 117 AD, personally gave 650 denarii (equivalent to perhaps US$430 in 2023) to all common Roman citizens who applied.[16]

16th century

In his Utopia (1516), English statesman and philosopher Thomas More depicts a society in which every person receives a guaranteed income.[17] In this book, basic income is proposed as an answer to the statement “No penalty on earth will stop people from stealing, if it’s their only way of getting food”, stating:[18]

instead of inflicting these horrible punishments, it would be far more to the point to provide everyone with some means of livelihood, so that nobody’s under the frightful necessity of becoming first a thief, and then a corpse.

Spanish scholar Johannes Ludovicus Vives (1492–1540) proposed that the municipal government should be responsible for securing a subsistence minimum to all its residents “not on the grounds of justice but for the sake of a more effective exercise of morally required charity.” Vives also argued that to qualify for poor relief, the recipient must “deserve the help he or she gets by proving his or her willingness to work.”[19]

18th century

English-born American philosopher Thomas Paine authored Common Sense (1776) and The American Crisis (1776–1783), the two most influential pamphlets at the start of the American Revolution. His essay, Agrarian Justice,[20] was published in 1797. In it, he proposed concrete reforms to abolish poverty. In particular, he proposed a universal social insurance system comprising old-age pensions and disability support, and universal stakeholder grants for young adults, funded by a 10% inheritance tax focused on land, it is also considered one of the earliest proposals for a social security system. Thomas Paine summarized his view by stating that “Men did not make the earth. It is the value of the improvements only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent for the land which he holds.” Paine saw inheritance as being partly a common fund and wanted to supplement the citizen’s dividend in a tax on inheritance transfers.

In 1797, English Radical Thomas Spence published The Rights of Infants[21] as a response to Thomas Paine‘s Agrarian Justice. In this essay Spence proposes the introduction of an unconditional basic income to all members of the community. Such allowance would be financed through the socialization of land and the benefits of the rents received by each municipality. A part of everyone’s earnings would be seized by the State, and given to others.

19th century

Henry George proposed to create a pension and disability system, and a broad social support system from a single tax on land and natural resource value. Social support would be distributed to residents “as a right” instead of as charity. George mentioned, but did not stress, the possibility of direct cash distribution of land rent. His ideas gave rise to the economic philosophy now known as Georgism or the “single tax movement”, which is an economic ideology holding that, although people should own the value they produce themselves, the economic rent derived from land—including from all natural resources, the commons, and urban locations—should belong equally to all members of society.[22][23][24] Some Georgists refer to unconditional basic income funded by the single tax as a citizen’s dividend in reference to Thomas Paine’s proposal from the 19th century.

Early 20th century

Around 1920, support for basic income started growing, primarily in England.

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) argued for a new social model that combined the advantages of socialism and anarchism, and that basic income should be a vital component in that new society. In his 1918 book Roads to Freedom, Russell wrote “… the plan we are advocating amounts essentially to this: that a certain small income, sufficient for necessaries, should be secured to all, whether they work or not, and that a larger income – as much larger as might be warranted by the total amount of commodities produced – should be given to those who are willing to engage in some work which the community recognizes as useful…”[25]

In the United Kingdom at the end of World War I, Dennis and Mabel Milner, a Quaker married couple of the Labour Party, published a short pamphlet entitled “Scheme for a State Bonus” (1918) that argued for the “introduction of an income paid unconditionally on a weekly basis to all citizens of the United Kingdom.” They considered it a moral right for everyone to have the means to subsistence, and thus it should not be conditional on work or willingness to work.[26][27]

C. H. Douglas was an engineer who became concerned that most British citizens could not afford to buy the goods that were produced, despite the rising productivity in British industry. His solution to this paradox was a new social system he called social credit, a combination of monetary reform and basic income.

In 1944 and 1945, the Beveridge Committee, led by the British economist William Beveridge, developed a proposal for a comprehensive new welfare system of social insurance, means-tested benefits, and unconditional allowances for children. Committee member Lady Rhys-Williams argued that the incomes for adults should be more like a basic income. She was also the first to develop the negative income tax model.[28][29] Her son Sir Brandon Rhys-Williams proposed a basic income to a parliamentary committee in 1982, and soon after that in 1984, the Basic Income Research Group, now the Citizen’s Basic Income Trust, began to conduct and disseminate research on basic income.[30]

Late 20th century

Milton Friedman proposed a negative income tax (NIT), which effectively sanctioned a basic income for all, in his 1962 book Capitalism and Freedom.[26] In his 1964 State of the Union address, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson declared an “unconditional war on poverty,” implemented in coming years with sweeping legislation.[31] Johnson broadened the agenda to the Great Society, including education, civil rights, health care, and support for the arts.[32] In this political climate, the idea of a guaranteed income for every American also took root.[33] Notably, a 1968 document, signed by 1200 economists, called for a guaranteed income for every American.[34] Four ambitious basic income experiments started on the related concept of negative income tax.[35] President Richard Nixon explained the Family Assistance Plan‘s purpose as to provide both a safety net for the poor and a financial incentive for welfare recipients to work.[36] Congress eventually approved a guaranteed minimum income for the elderly and the disabled.[36]

In the mid-1970s, the main competitor to basic income and negative income tax, the Earned income tax credit (EITC) and its advocates won over enough legislators for the US Congress to pass laws on that policy.[37] In 1986, the Basic Income European Network (later renamed the Basic Income Earth Network (BIEN)) was founded, with academic conferences every second year.[38] Other advocates included the green political movement, other activists, and some groups of unemployed people.[39]

In the late 20th century, discussions were held around automatization and jobless growth,[40] the possibility of combining economic growth with ecologically sustainable development, and how to reform the welfare state bureaucracy.[41] Basic income was interwoven in these and many other debates.[42] During the BIEN academic conferences, scholars published papers about basic income from a wide variety of perspectives.[43]

21st century

Further information: List of advocates of basic income

In recent years, the idea has come to the forefront more than before. The Swiss referendum about basic income in 2016 was covered in media worldwide, despite its rejection.[44] Famous business people like Elon Musk,[45] Pierre Omidyar,[46] and Andrew Yang have lent their support, as have high-profile politicians like Jeremy Corbyn[47] and Tulsi Gabbard.[48] The Institute for Public Policy Research predicted that 59% of tasks currently done by humans could be affected by AI in the next three to five years. Universal basic Income could help fill the gap left by this “jobs apocalypse.”[49]

In 2019-2021, in Stockton, California, then-Mayor Michael Tubbs initiated a 24-month pilot program of guaranteed income for 125 residents as part of the privately funded S.E.E.D. project there.[50][51]

In the 2020 Democratic Party primaries, political newcomer Andrew Yang touted basic income as his core policy. His policy, referred to as a “Freedom Dividend“, would have provided adult American citizens US$1,000 a month independent of employment status.[52]

On 21 January 2021, in California, the two-year donor-funded Compton Pledge[50] began distributing monthly guaranteed income payments to a “pre-verified” pool of low-income residents,[50] in a program gauged for a maximum of 800 recipients, at which point it would be one of the larger among 25 U.S. cities exploring this approach to community economics.

Beginning in December 2021, Tacoma, Washington, piloted “Growing Resilience in Tacoma” (GRIT), a guaranteed income initiative that provided $500 a month to 110 families. GRIT is part of the University of Pennsylvania‘s Center for Guaranteed Income Research larger study. A report on the results of the GRIT experiment was published in 2024.[53]

Response to COVID-19

As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic and its economic impact, universal basic income and similar proposals such as helicopter money and cash transfers were increasingly discussed across the world.[54] Most countries implemented forms of partial unemployment schemes, which effectively subsidized workers’ incomes without a work requirement. Around ninety countries and regions including the United States, Spain, Hong Kong, and Japan introduced temporary direct cash transfer programs to their citizens.[55][56]

In Europe, a petition calling for an “emergency basic income” gathered more than 200,000 signatures,[57] and polls suggested widespread support in public opinion for it.[58][59] Unlike the various stimulus packages of the US administration, the EU’s stimulus plans did not include any form of income-support policies.[60]

Basic income vs negative income tax

See also: Negative income tax

This section needs editing to comply with Wikipedia’s Manual of Style. Please help improve the content. (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Two ways of looking at basic income when combined with a flat income tax, both of which result in the same net income (orange line): 1. (red) stipend with conventional tax for income above the stipend. 2. (blue) negative tax for low-income people and conventional tax for high-income people.

The associated diagram shows a basic income/negative tax system combined with flat income tax (the same percentage in tax for every income level). Axis y is here the pre-tax salary given by the employer and y’ is the net income.

Negative income tax

For low earnings, there is no income tax in the negative income tax system. They receive money, in the form of a negative income tax, but they do not pay any tax. Then, as their labour income increases, this benefit, this money from the state, gradually decreases. That decrease is to be seen as a mechanism for the poor, instead of the poor paying tax.

Basic income

That is, however, not the case in the corresponding basic income system in the diagram at right. There, everyone typically pays income taxes. But on the other hand, everyone also gets the same amount of basic income.

But the net income is the same

But, as the orange line in the diagram shows, the net income is anyway the same. No matter how much or how little one earns, the amount of money received is the same, regardless of which of these two systems are used.

Basic income and negative income tax are generally seen to be similar in economic net effects, but there are some differences:

Philippe Van Parijs in his library
  • Psychological. Philip Harvey accepts that “both systems would have the same redistributive effect and tax earned income at the same marginal rate” but does not agree that “the two systems would be perceived by taxpayers as costing the same”.[61]: 15, 13 
  • Tax profile. Tony Atkinson made a distinction based on whether the tax profile was flat (for basic income) or variable (for NIT).[62]
  • Timing. Philippe Van Parijs states that “the economic equivalence between the two programs should not hide the fact that they have different effects on recipients because of the different timing of payments: ex-ante in Basic Income, ex-post in Negative Income Tax”.[63]

Perspectives and arguments

Automation

There is a prevailing opinion that we are in an era of technological unemployment – that technology is increasingly making skilled workers obsolete.

Prof. Mark MacCarthy (2014)[64]

One central rationale for basic income is the belief that automation and robotisation could result in technological unemployment, leading to a world with fewer paid jobs. A key question in this context is whether a basic income could help prevent or alleviate such problems by allowing everyone to benefit from a society’s wealth, as well as whether a UBI could be a stepping stone to a resource-based or post-scarcity economy.[45][65][66][67]

U.S. presidential candidate and nonprofit founder Andrew Yang has stated that automation caused the loss of 4 million manufacturing jobs and advocated for a UBI (which he calls a Freedom Dividend) of $1,000/month rather than worker retraining programs.[68] Yang has stated that he is influenced by Martin Ford. Ford believes that the emerging technologies will fail to deliver much employment; on the contrary, because the new industries will “rarely, if ever, be highly labor-intensive”.[69] Similar ideas have been debated before in history—that “the machines will take the jobs”. What is new is the existence of several academic studies that forecast a future with substantially less employment, in the decades to come.[70][71][72] Additionally, US President Barack Obama stated that he believes that the growth of artificial intelligence will lead to an increased discussion around the idea of “unconditional free money for everyone”.[73]

Economics and costs

See also: Cost of living

Some proponents of UBI have argued that basic income could increase economic growth because it would sustain people while they invest in education to get higher-skilled and well-paid jobs.[74][75] However, there is also a discussion of basic income within the degrowth movement, which argues against economic growth.[76]

Advocates contend that the guaranteed financial security of a UBI will increase the population’s willingness to take risks,[77] which would create a culture of inventiveness and strengthen entrepreneurial spirit.[78]

The cost of a basic income is one of the biggest questions in the public debate as well as in the research and depends on many things. It first and foremost depends on the level of the basic income as such, and it also depends on many technical points regarding exactly how it is constructed.

While opponents claim that a basic income at an adequate level for all citizens cannot be financed, their supporters propose that it could indeed be financed, with some advocating a strong redistribution and restructuring of bureaucracy and administration for this purpose.[79]

According to statements of American Enterprise Institute-affiliated Libertarian/conservative scholar Charles Murray, recalled and sanctioned in 2016 by the George Gibbs Chair in Political Economy and Senior Research Fellow at the Mercatus Center at George Mason University and nationally syndicated columnist[80][81] Veronique de Rugy, as of 2014, the annual cost of a UBI in the US would have been about $200 billion less expensive than the US social safety-net system put in place at that date.[82] By 2020, it would have been nearly a trillion dollars less expensive.[83]

American economist Karl Widerquist argues that simply multiplying the amount of the grant by the population would be a naive calculation, as this is the gross costs of UBI and does not take into account that UBI is a system where people pay taxes on a regular basis and receive the grant at the same time.[84]

According to Swiss economist Thomas Straubhaar, the concept of UBI is basically financeable without any problems. He describes it as “at its core, nothing more than a fundamental tax reform” that “bundles all social policy measures into a single instrument, the basic income paid out unconditionally.”[85] He also considers a universal basic income to be socially just, arguing that although all citizens would receive the same amount in the form of the basic income at the beginning of the month, the rich would have lost significantly more money through taxes at the end of the month than they would have received through the basic income, while the opposite is the case for poorer people, similar to the concept of a negative income tax.[85]

Recent theoretical work has introduced alternative mathematical approaches to the allocation of basic income. One such example is the Boltzmann fair division model, which applies the Boltzmann distribution from statistical mechanics to resource or income allocation.[86] In this framework, each individual’s share is assigned probabilistically according to an exponential function of a specified attribute (such as need or contribution), providing a flexible mechanism to balance fairness and efficiency in basic income distribution.

Inflation of labor and rental costs

One of the most common arguments against UBI stems from the upward pressure on prices, in particular for labor and housing rents, which would likely cause inflation.[87] Public policy choices such as rent controls or land value taxation would likely affect the inflationary potential of universal basic income.[87]

Work

Many critics of basic income argue that people, in general, will work less, which in turn means less tax revenue and less money for the state and local governments.[88][89][90][91] Studies include:

  • In negative income tax experiments in the United States in 1970, there was a five percent decline in the hours worked. The work reduction was largest for second earners in two-earner households and weakest for primary earners. The reduction in hours was higher when the benefit was higher.[89]
  • In the Mincome experiment in rural Dauphin, Manitoba, also in the 1970s, there were slight reductions in hours worked during the experiment. However, the only two groups who worked significantly less were new mothers, and teenagers working to support their families. New mothers spent this time with their infant children, and working teenagers put significant additional time into their schooling.[92]
  • A 2024 study investigated the impact of $1,000/month UBI over a period of 3 years for 1,000 randomized low-income participants in two U.S. states, which represented an around 40% increase in household income. The study found an income effect with a decrease of non-UBI income by $1,500/year, a decrease in non-UBI household income by 21% of the UBI transfer, a 2% decrease in labor market participation, no significant change in time spent on childcare, no self-reported decrease in barriers to employment, a null result for changes in job quality, an increase in entrepreneurial orientation but no significant change in entrepreneurial activity, while enrollment in tertiary education showed a slight increase for participants below 30 years of age.[93]

Although it is difficult to know for sure what will happen if a whole country introduces basic income, there are nevertheless some studies that have attempted to look at this question:

  • A study from 2017 showed no evidence that people worked less because of the Iranian subsidy reform (a basic income reform).[94]

Regarding the question of basic income vs jobs, there is also the aspect of so-called welfare traps. Proponents of basic income often argue that with a basic income, unattractive jobs would necessarily have to be better paid and their working conditions improved, so that people still do them without need, reducing these traps.[95]

Philosophy and morality

See also: Community cohesion and Solidarity

By definition, universal basic income does not make a distinction between “deserving” and “undeserving” individuals when making payments. Opponents argue that this lack of discrimination is unfair: “Those who genuinely choose idleness or unproductive activities cannot expect those who have committed to doing productive work to subsidize their livelihood. Responsibility is central to fairness.”[96]

Proponents usually view UBI as a fundamental human right that enables an adequate standard of living which every citizen should have access to in modern society.[97] It would be a kind of foundation guaranteed for everyone, on which one could build and never fall below that subsistence level.

It is also argued that this lack of discrimination between those who supposedly deserve it and those who do not is a way to reduce social stigma.[96]

In addition, proponents of UBI may argue that the “deserving” and “undeserving” categories are a superficial classification, as people who are not in regular gainful employment also contribute to society, e.g. by raising children, caring for people, or doing other value-creating activities which are not institutionalized. UBI would provide a balance here and thus overcomes a concept of work that is reduced to pure gainful employment and disregards sideline activities too much.[98]

Health and poverty

See also: Social determinants of mental health, Social determinants of health in poverty, and Social determinants of health

The first comprehensive systematic review of the health impact of basic income (or rather unconditional cash transfers in general) in low- and middle-income countries, a study that included 21 studies of which 16 were randomized controlled trials, found a clinically meaningful reduction in the likelihood of being sick by an estimated 27%. Unconditional cash transfers, according to the study, may also improve food security and dietary diversity. Children in recipient families are also more likely to attend school and the cash transfers may increase money spent on health care.[99] A 2022 update of this review confirmed these findings based on a body of evidence (35 studies, the majority being large randomized controlled trials) and additionally found that unconditional cash transfers also reduce the likelihood of living in extreme poverty.[100]

The Canadian Medical Association passed a motion in 2015 in support of basic income and for basic income trials in Canada.[101]

Advocates

Main article: List of advocates of universal basic income

Pilot programs and experiments

Main article: Universal basic income pilots

See also: Universal basic income by country

Omitara, one of the two poor villages in Namibia where a local basic income was tested in 2008–2009

Since the 1960s, but in particular since the late 2000s, several pilot programs and experiments on basic income have been conducted around the world. Some examples include:

1960s−1970s

  • Experiments with negative income tax in the United States and Canada in the 1960s and 1970s.
  • The province of Manitoba, Canada experimented with Mincome, a basic guaranteed income, in the 1970s. In the town of Dauphin, Manitoba, labor decreased by 13%, less than expected. This program was ended after issues with the cost becoming unsustainable started to arise.[102][103]

2000−2009

  • The basic income grant in Namibia launched in 2008 and ended in 2009.[104]
  • An independent pilot implemented in São Paulo, Brazil launched in 2009.[105]

2010−2019

  • Basic income trials ran in 2011–2012 in several villages in India,[106] whose government has proposed a guaranteed basic income for all citizens.[107] It was found that basic income in the region raised the education rate of young people by 25%.[108]
  • Iran became the first country to introduce a system of UBI in December 2010.[109][110] It was paid to all citizens and replaced the gasoline subsidies, electricity, and some food,[111] that the country applied for years to reduce inequalities and poverty. The sum corresponded in 2012 to approximately US$40 per person per month, US$480 per year for a single person, and US$2,300 for a family of five people.[112][113]
  • In Spain, the ingreso mínimo vital, the income guarantee system, is an economic benefit guaranteed by the social security in Spain, but in 2016 was considered in need of reform.[114]
  • In South Korea the Youth Allowance Program was started in 2016 in the City of Seongnam, which would give every 24-year-old citizen 250,000 won (~US$215) every quarter in the form of a “local currency” that could only be used in local businesses. This program was later expanded to the entire province of Gyeonggi in 2018.[115][116]
  • The GiveDirectly experiment in a disadvantaged village of Nairobi, Kenya, benefitting over 20,000 people living in rural Kenya, was the longest-running basic income pilot as of November 2017, which is set to run for 12 years.[117][118][119]
  • A project called Eight in a village in Fort Portal, Uganda, was launched by a nonprofit organization in January 2017, providing income for 56 adults and 88 children through mobile money.[120]
  • A two-year pilot the Finnish government began in January 2017 involved 2,000 subjects.[121][122] In April 2018, the Finnish government rejected a request for funds to extend and expand the program from Kela (Finland‘s social security agency).[123]
  • An experiment in the city of Utrecht, Netherlands launched in early 2017, that is testing different rates of aid.[107]
  • A three-year basic income pilot that the Ontario provincial government, Canada, launched in the cities of Hamilton, Thunder Bay and Lindsay in July 2017.[124] Although called basic income, it was only made available to those with a low income and funding would be removed if they obtained employment,[125] making it more related to the current welfare system than true basic income. The pilot project was canceled on 31 July 2018 by the newly elected Progressive Conservative government under Ontario Premier Doug Ford.
  • In Israel, in 2018 a non-profit initiative GoodDollar started with an objective to build a global economic framework for providing universal, sustainable, and scalable basic income through the new digital asset technology of blockchain. The non-profit aims to launch a peer-to-peer money transfer network in which money can be distributed to those most in need, regardless of their location, based on the principles of UBI. The project raised US$1 million from a financial company.[126][127]
  • The Rythu Bandhu scheme is a welfare scheme started in the state of Telangana, India, in May 2018, aimed at helping farmers. Each farm owner receives 4,000 INR per acre twice a year for rabi and kharif harvests. To finance the program a budget allocation of 120 billion INR (US$1.55 Billion as of May 2022) was made in the 2018–2019 state budget.[128]

2020−present

  • Swiss non-profit Social Income started paying out basic incomes in the form of mobile money in 2020 to people in need in Sierra Leone. Contributions finance the international initiative from people worldwide, who donate 1% of their monthly paychecks.[129]
  • In May 2020, Spain introduced a minimum basic income, reaching about 2% of the population, in response to COVID-19 in order to “fight a spike in poverty due to the coronavirus pandemic”. It was expected to cost state coffers three billion euros ($3.5 billion) a year.”[130]
  • In August 2020, a project in Germany started that gives a €1,200 monthly basic income in a lottery system to citizens who applied online. The crowdsourced project lasted three years and be compared against 1,380 people who do not receive basic income.[131] When the project was finished in August 2023, Mein Grundeinkommen calculated that a tax-financed universal basic income of €1,200 per month could be financed for every adult in Germany that would make 80% of adults better off.[132]
  • In October 2020, HudsonUP[133] was launched in Hudson, New York, by The Spark of Hudson[134] and Humanity Forward Foundation[135] to give $500 monthly basic income to 25 residents. It will last five years and be compared against 50 people who are not receiving basic income.
  • In May 2021, the government of Wales, which has devolved powers in matters of Social Welfare within the UK, announced the trialling of a universal basic income scheme to “see whether the promises that basic income holds out are genuinely delivered”.[136] From July 2022 over 500 people leaving care in Wales were offered £1600 per month in a 3-year £20 million pilot scheme, to evaluate the effect on the lives of those involved in the hope of providing independence and security to people.[137]
  • In July 2022, Chicago began a year-long guaranteed income program by sending $500 a month to 5,000 households for one year in a lottery system to citizens who applied online.[138] A similar program was launched in late 2022 by Cook County, Illinois (which encompasses the entirety of Chicago as well as several suburbs) which sent monthly $500 payments to 3,250 residents with a household income at or below 250% of the federal poverty level for two years.[139]
  • In June 2023, The Guardian reported that a universal basic income of £1,600 a month is to be trialled in two places in England – Jarrow and East Finchley.[140]
  • In February 2025, South Korea announced a “farmers’ opportunity income” plan to be integrated into their basic income for farmers, and deployed in 24 cities and counties of the Gyeonggi Province. An estimated 210,000 selected farmers and fishermen will receive either 1.8 million won annually or 50,000 won monthly.[141][142]
  • In March 2025, the Government of Delhi in India approved the “Mahila Samridhi Yojana” plan, under which eligible women would receive a monthly allowance of ₹2,500, based on financial status for women below the poverty line.[141][143]

Payments with similarities

Alaska Permanent Fund

Main article: Alaska Permanent Fund

The Permanent Fund of Alaska in the United States provides a kind of yearly basic income based on the oil and gas revenues of the state to nearly all state residents. More precisely the fund resembles a sovereign wealth fund, investing resource revenues into bonds, stocks, and other conservative investment options with the intent to generate renewable revenue for future generations. The fund has had a noticeable yet diminishing effect on reducing poverty among rural Alaska Indigenous people, notably in the elderly population.[144] However, the payment is not high enough to cover basic expenses, averaging $1,600 annually per resident in 2019 currency[145] (As of 2019 it has never exceeded $2,100), and is not a fixed, guaranteed amount. For these reasons, it is not always considered a basic income. However, some consider it to be the only example of a real basic income.[146][147]

Wealth Partaking Scheme

Main article: Wealth Partaking Scheme

Macau‘s Wealth Partaking Scheme provides some annual basic income to permanent residents, funded by revenues from the city’s casinos. However, the amount disbursed is not sufficient to cover basic living expenses, so it is not considered a basic income.[148]

Bolsa Família

Main article: Bolsa Família

Bolsa Família is a large social welfare program in Brazil that provides money to many low-income families in the country. The system is related to basic income, but has more conditions, like asking the recipients to keep their children in school until graduation. As of March 2020, the program covers 13.8 million families, and pays an average of $34 per month, in a country where the minimum wage is $190 per month.[149]

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians

The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (ECBI) opened Harrah’s Cherokee Casino in 1997 and it has generated jobs and revenue for the tribe, providing money that the EBCI applies to its people’s education, welfare and culture. Each member of the tribe is paid an annual income that started at $500 and has increased to $10,000 as of 2015.[150][better source needed]

Other welfare programs

  • Pension: A payment that in some countries is guaranteed to all citizens above a certain age. The difference from true basic income is that it is restricted to people over a certain age.
  • Child benefit: A program similar to pensions but restricted to parents of children, usually allocated based on the number of children.
  • Conditional cash transfer: A regular payment given to families, but only to the poor. It is usually dependent on basic conditions such as sending their children to school or having them vaccinated. Programs include Bolsa Família in Brazil and Programa Prospera in Mexico.
  • Guaranteed minimum income differs from a basic income in that it is restricted to those in search of work and possibly other restrictions, such as savings being below a certain level. Example programs are unemployment benefits in the UK, the revenu de solidarité active in France, and citizens’ income in Italy.

Petitions, polls and referendums

  • 2008: An official petition for basic income was launched in Germany by Susanne Wiest.[151] The petition was accepted, and Susanne Wiest was invited for a hearing at the German parliament’s Commission of Petitions. After the hearing, the petition was closed as “unrealizable”.[152]
  • 2013–2014: A European Citizens’ Initiative collected 280,000 signatures demanding that the European Commission study the concept of an unconditional basic income.[153]
  • 2015: A citizen’s initiative in Spain received 185,000 signatures, short of the required number to mandate that the Spanish parliament discuss the proposal.[154]
  • 2016: The world’s first universal basic income referendum in Switzerland on 5 June 2016 was rejected with a 76.9% majority.[155][156] Also in 2016, a poll showed that 58% of the EU’s population is aware of basic income, and 64% would vote in favour of the idea.[157]
  • 2017: Politico/Morning Consult asked 1,994 Americans about their opinions on several political issues including national basic income; 43% either “strongly supported” or “somewhat supported” the idea.[158]
  • 2018: The results of a poll by Gallup conducted last year between September and October were published. 48% of respondents supported universal basic income.[159]
  • 2019: In November, an Austrian initiative received approximately 70,000 signatures but failed to reach the 100,000 signatures needed for a parliamentary discussion. The initiative was started by Peter Hofer. His proposal suggested a basic income sourced from a financial transaction tax, of €1,200, for every Austrian citizen.[160]
  • 2020: A study by Oxford University found that 71% of Europeans are now in favour of basic income. The study was conducted in March, with 12,000 respondents and in 27 EU-member states and the UK.[161] A YouGov poll likewise found a majority for universal basic income in United Kingdom[162] and a poll by University of Chicago found that 51% of Americans aged 18–36 support a monthly basic income of $1,000.[163] In the UK there was also a letter, signed by over 170 MPs and Lords from multiple political parties, calling on the government to introduce a universal basic income during the COVID-19 pandemic.[164]
  • 2020: A Pew Research Center survey, conducted online in August 2020, of 11,000 U.S. adults found that a majority (54%) oppose the federal government providing a guaranteed income of $1,000 per month to all adults, while 45% support it.[165]
  • 2020: In a poll by Hill-HarrisX, 55% of Americans voted in favour of UBI in August, up from 49% in September 2019 and 43% in February 2019.[166]
  • 2020: The results of an online survey of 2,031 participants conducted in 2018 in Germany were published: 51% were either “very much in favor” or “in favor” of UBI being introduced.[167]
  • 2020: An October survey of 1,026 Australians by YouGov found a 58% support for universal basic income.[168]
  • 2021: A Change.org petition calling for monthly stimulus checks in the amount of $2,000 per adult and $1,000 per child for the remainder of the COVID-19 pandemic had received almost 3 million signatures.[169]

See also

Notes

  1.  Also variously known as unconditional basic income, citizen’s basic income, basic income guarantee, basic living stipend, guaranteed annual income,[1] universal income security program or universal demogrant

References

  1.  “Improving Social Security in Canada Guaranteed Annual Income: A Supplementary Paper”. Minister of Human Resource Development Canada. 1994. Archived from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
  2.  Clifford, Catherine (27 June 2019). “Why everyone is talking about free cash handouts—an explainer on universal basic income”. CNBC. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  3.  LaPonsie, Maryalene (25 January 2021). “What Is Universal Basic Income?”. U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
  4.  “Universal basic income: An option for Europe? – DW – 11/28/2020”. Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 19 December 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  5.  “USBIG: What is BIG?”. 24 July 2011. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
  6.  Gentilini, Ugo; Grosh, Margaret; Rigolini, Jamele; Yemtsov, Ruslan (25 November 2019). “Overview: Exploring Universal Basic Income”. In Gentilini, Ugo; Grosh, Margaret; Rigolini, Jamele; Yemtsov, Ruslan (eds.). Exploring Universal Basic Income: A Guide to Navigating Concepts, Evidence, and Practices. The World Bank. pp. 1–15. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1458-7_ov. ISBN 978-1-4648-1458-7.
  7.  Samuel, Sigal (19 February 2020). “Everywhere basic income has been tried, in one map”. Vox. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
  8.  Van Parijs, Philippe (1 June 2013). “The Universal Basic Income: Why Utopian Thinking Matters, and How Sociologists Can Contribute to It*”. Politics & Society. 41 (2): 171–182. doi:10.1177/0032329213483106. ISSN 0032-3292. S2CID 220676097. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
  9.  Bregman, Rutger (5 March 2017). Utopia for Realists: And How We Can Get There. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4088-9025-7. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
  10.  Tipurić, Darko; Garača, Željko; Krajnović, Ana (2020). “Univerzalni temeljni dohodak”. Ekonomski Pregled (in Croatian). 71 (6): 632–656. doi:10.32910/ep.71.6.4. ISSN 0424-7558.
  11.  “Sudan’s basic income scheme aims to ease economic pain”. Reuters. 29 April 2021. Archived from the original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
  12.  Matthews, Dylan (20 July 2017). “The 2 most popular critiques of basic income are both wrong”. Vox. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  13.  “Employment”. SEED. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  14.  Moore, Karl; Lewis, David Charles (2 June 2009). The Origins of Globalization. Routledge. pp. 37–39. ISBN 978-1-135-97008-6.
  15.  Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus. Yale University Press. pp. 471, 509–510. ISBN 978-0-300-13919-8. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
  16.  Durant, Will (2002). Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the Dawn of the Modern Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-7432-2910-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
  17.  Bryce Covert, “What Money Can Buy: The promise of a universal basic income – and its limitations”, The Nation, vol. 307, no. 6 (10 / 17 September 2018), p. 33.
  18.  More, Thomas (1978). Decernuntur enim furanti gravia atque horrenda supplicia, cum potius multo fuerit providendum, uti aliquis esset proventus vitae. De Optimo Reipublicae Statu deque Nova Insula Utopia (originally 1516). Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 36.
  19.  “A short history of the Basic Income idea”. Basic Income Earth Network. 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  20.  Thomas Paine. “Agrarian Justice,”.
  21.  Spence, Thomas (10 March 1797). “The Rights of Infants”. www.marxists.org. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  22.  “An Introduction to Georgist Philosophy & Activity”. Council of Georgist Organizations. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  23.  Heavey, Jerome F. (July 2003). “Comments on Warren Samuels’ “Why the Georgist movement has not succeeded””. American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 62 (3): 593–599. doi:10.1111/1536-7150.00230. JSTOR 3487813. human beings have an inalienable right to the product of their own labor
  24.  McNab, Jane. “How the reputation of Georgists turned minds against the idea of a land rent tax” (PDF). Business School, The University of Western Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
  25.  “A short history of the Basic Income idea | BIEN — Basic Income Earth Network”. basicincome.org. 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  26.  Szreter, Simon (July 2022). “How Seriously Should we Take Universal Basic Income?”. The Political Quarterly. 93 (3): 517–523. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13169. ISSN 0032-3179. S2CID 250473196.
  27.  Mabel, E.; Milner, Dennis (2004), Cunliffe, John; Erreygers, Guido (eds.), “Scheme for a State Bonus (1918)”, The Origins of Universal Grants: An Anthology of Historical Writings on Basic Capital and Basic Income, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 121–133, doi:10.1057/9780230522824_12, ISBN 978-0-230-52282-4
  28.  Sloman, Peter (2015). Beveridge’s rival: Juliet Rhys-Williams and the campaign for basic income, 1942-55 (PDF) (Report). New College, Oxford. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 December 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  29.  Fitzpatrick, Tony (1999). Freedom and Security: an introduction to the basic income debate (1st publ. ed.). New York: St. Martin’s Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-312-22313-7.
  30.  “Citizen’s Income – An unconditional, nonwithdrawable income paid to every individual as a right of citizenship”. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  31.  Bailey, Martha J.; Danziger, Sheldon (31 July 2013). Legacies of the War on Poverty. Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-1-61044-814-7.
  32.  Lawrence, Mark Atwood; Updegrove, Mark K. (19 October 2023). LBJ’s America: The Life and Legacies of Lyndon Baines Johnson. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-18738-1.
  33.  Newman, Katherine S.; Jacobs, Elisabeth S. (15 March 2010). Who Cares?: Public Ambivalence and Government Activism from the New Deal to the Second Gilded Age. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3468-6.
  34.  Wright, Robert E.; Przegalińska, Aleksandra (12 October 2022). Debating Universal Basic Income: Pros, Cons, and Alternatives. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-031-17513-8.
  35.  Pirog, Maureen A. (27 April 2009). Social Experimentation, Program Evaluation, and Public Policy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0740-5.
  36.  “American President: Richard Milhous Nixon: Domestic Affairs”. MillerCenter.org. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
  37.  Romeo, Nick (16 January 2024). The Alternative: How to Build a Just Economy. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-5417-0161-8.
  38.  “BIEN | Basic Income Earth Network”. BIEN. Archived from the original on 3 January 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2019.
  39.  Blaschke, Ronald (January 2010). “The basic income debate in Germany and some basic reflections” Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
  40.  Cloke, Paul; Crang, Philip; Goodwin, Mark (11 January 2013). Introducing Human Geographies, Second Edition. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4441-6980-5.
  41.  McDonough, Brian; Morales, Jessie Bustillos (14 November 2019). Universal Basic Income. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-10611-5.
  42.  Merrill, Roberto; Neves, Catarina; Laín, Bru (30 November 2021). Basic Income Experiments: A Critical Examination of Their Goals, Contexts, and Methods. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-89120-6.
  43.  Torry, Malcolm (20 October 2023). The Palgrave International Handbook of Basic Income. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-031-41001-7.
  44.  “Switzerland’s voters reject basic income plan”. BBC News. 5 June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  45.  Clifford, Catherine (18 June 2018). “Elon Musk: Free cash handouts ‘will be necessary’ if robots take humans’ jobs”. CNBC. Archived from the original on 14 September 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
  46.  Weller, Chris (21 August 2017). “Richard Branson just endorsed basic income – here are 10 other tech moguls who support the radical idea”. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
  47.  Cumiskey, Lucas (22 April 2020). “Coronavirus: Jeremy Corbyn would ‘generally welcome’ introduction of Universal Basic Income”. Islington Gazette. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
  48.  “Fortune+ Time’s Up ask the candidates about the issues that matter to working women: Tulsi Gabbard”. Fortune. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
  49.  Ferguson, Donna (14 July 2024). “Money for nothing: is universal basic income about to transform society?”. The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
  50.  “Compton Joins the Growing Number of U.S. Cities to Launch a Guaranteed Income Program”. 28 January 2021. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  51.  West, S.; Castro, A. (10 April 2023). “Impact of Guaranteed Income on Health, Finances, and Agency: Findings from the Stockton Randomized Controlled Trial”. Journal of Urban Health. 100 (2): 227–244. doi:10.1007/s11524-023-00723-0. PMC 10160253. PMID 37037977. Retrieved 3 October 2025.
  52.  “The Freedom Dividend – Yang2020 – Andrew Yang for President”. Yang2020. Retrieved 16 April 2023.
  53.  Denkmann, Libby (15 June 2022). “How’s Tacoma’s guaranteed basic income program going?”. KUOW. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
  54.  Wispelaere, Jurgen De; Morales, Leticia (April 2021). “Emergency Basic Income during the Pandemic”. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics. 30 (2): 248–254. doi:10.1017/S0963180120000808. ISSN 0963-1801. PMID 33353576.
  55.  Patel, Salil B.; Kariel, Joel (26 January 2021). “Universal basic income and covid-19 pandemic”. BMJ. 372: n193. doi:10.1136/bmj.n193. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 33500257. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  56.  “Why Countries Are Giving People Cash Amid the Pandemic”. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  57.  “Emergency basic income for the EU – now!”. you.wemove.eu. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  58.  “New study reveals most Europeans support basic income after COVID-19 | University of Oxford”. University of Oxford. 6 May 2020. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  59.  “Results of the YouGov poll about UBI”. WeMove.EU. 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  60.  “For a better, faster recovery: €1,000 checks for Europeans”. Politico. 29 March 2021. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
  61.  Philip Harvey, “The Relative Cost of a Universal Basic Income and a Negative Income Tax” (2006).
  62.  A. B. Atkinson, “Public Economics in Action: The Basic Income/Flat Tax Proposal” (1995) quoted in Davide Tondani, “Universal Basic Income and Negative Income Tax: Two Different Ways of Thinking Redistribution” (2008).
  63.  Tondani’s paraphrase of Van Parijs’s interpolated comments in Eduardo Suplicy‘s interview with Milton Friedman. Davide Tondani, “Universal Basic Income and Negative Income Tax: Two Different Ways of Thinking Redistribution” (2008); E. Suplicy, “Um Diálogo com Milton Friedman sobre o Imposto de Renda Negativo”. Archived 26 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine (2000).
  64.  MacCarthy, Mark (30 September 2014). “Time to kill the tech job-killing myth”. The Hill. Archived from the original on 13 August 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  65.  Diam, Peter H. (13 December 2016). “If Robots and AI Steal Our Jobs, a Universal Basic Income Could Help”. Singularity Hub. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  66.  “Everything you need to know about universal basic income”. The Independent. 14 February 2018. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  67.  Matthews, Dylan (17 July 2017). “A basic income really could end poverty forever”. Vox. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  68.  Simon, Matt (1 April 2019). “Andrew Yang’s Presidential Bid Is So Very 21st Century”. Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 17 August 2019. …in order to pay for meaningful retraining, if retraining works. My plan is to just give everyone $1,000 a month, and then have the economy geared more to serve human goals and needs.
  69.  Ehrenreich, Barbara (11 May 2015). “‘Rise of the Robots’ and ‘Shadow Work'”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2017.
  70.  Waters, Richard (3 March 2014). “Technology: Rise of the replicants” ((registration required)). Financial Times. Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  71.  Frey, Carl Benedikt & Osborne, Michael A. (17 September 2013). “The future of employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation” (PDF). Oxford University, Oxford Martin School. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  72.  Thompson, Derek (23 January 2014). “What Jobs Will the Robots Take?”. The Nation. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  73.  “President Obama: We’ll be debating unconditional free money ‘over the next 10 or 20 years'”. Business Insider. 12 October 2016. Archived from the original on 18 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  74.  Tanner, Michael. “The Pros and Cons of a Guaranteed National Income.” Policy Analysis. Cato Institute, 12 May 2015, Web. 2, 7 March 2016.
  75.  Sheahen, Allan. Basic Income Guarantee: Your Right to Economic Security. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  76.  Burke Murphy, Jason (13 August 2016). “Basic Income, sustainable consumption and the ‘DeGrowth’ movement”. BIEN. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
  77.  Wohner, Lukas. “Macht das bedingungslose Grundeinkommen mutig?”. Neue Narrative (in German). Archived from the original on 5 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  78.  Kazmir, Munr (23 June 2021). “Believe in American Ingenuity? Support Universal Basic Income”. Age of Awareness. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  79.  Fouksman, Liz (14 August 2018). “Why universal basic income costs far less than you think”. The Conversation. Archived from the original on 5 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  80.  “Veronique de Rugy”. National Review. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  81.  “Veronique de Rugy”. GTNF 2023. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  82.  “Is a Universal Basic Income Program Worth the Costs?, by Veronique de Rugy”. www.creators.com. 4 June 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  83.  de Rugy, Veronique (7 June 2016). “Universal Basic Income’s Growing Appeal”. Mercatus Center. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
  84.  “A Global Look at Universal Basic Income with Karl Widerquist”. Ralph Bunche Institute. 29 March 2021. Archived from the original on 7 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  85.  Straubhaar, Thomas (12 February 2017). “Das Grundeinkommen ist nichts anderes als eine Steuerreform”. Die Zeit. Archived from the original on 5 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  86.  Park, J.-W., Kim, C. U., Ghim, C., & Kim, B. J. (2022). The Boltzmann fair division for distributive justice. Scientific Reports, 12, 15494. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-19792-3
  87.  Miller, Joshua (14 June 2021), Universal Basic Income and Inflation: Reviewing Theory and Evidence, Rochester, NY: SSRN, doi:10.2139/ssrn.3920748, S2CID 239453577, SSRN 3920748
  88.  “urn:nbn:se:su:diva-7385: Just Distribution: Rawlsian Liberalism and the Politics of Basic Income”. Diva-portal.org. Archived from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
  89.  Séguin, Gilles. “Improving Social Security in Canada – Guaranteed Annual Income: A Supplementary Paper, Government of Canada, 1994″. Canadiansocialresearch.net. Archived from the original on 21 May 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
  90.  Van Parijs, Philippe (March 1997). “The Need for Basic Income: An Imprints interview with Philippe Van Parijs”. Imprints. Vol. 1, no. 3. Christopher Bertram, interviewer. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023 – via seis.bristol.ac.uk.
  91.  Nguyen, Le Dong Hai (25 June 2019). “On the implementation of the Universal Basic Income as a response to technological unemployment” (PDF). International Journal of Management Research and Economics. 1 (3). Cape Town, South Africa: 1–6. doi:10.51483/IJMRE.1.3.2021.1-6. S2CID 235315750. SSRN 3714155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
  92.  Belik, Vivian (5 September 2011). “A Town Without Poverty? Canada’s only experiment in guaranteed income finally gets reckoning”. Dominionpaper.ca. Archived from the original on 29 October 2011. Retrieved 16 August 2013.
  93.  Vivalt, Eva; Rhodes, Elizabeth; Bartik, Alexander; Broockman, David; Miller, Sarah (2024). The Employment Effects of a Guaranteed Income: Experimental Evidence from Two U.S. States (Report). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w32719.
  94.  Mostafavi-Dehzooei, Mohammad H.; Salehi-Isfahani, Djavad (2017). “Consumer Subsidies in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Simulations of Further Reforms”. The Quest for Subsidy Reforms in the Middle East and North Africa Region (PDF). Natural Resource Management and Policy. Vol. 42. Springer. pp. 259–289. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52926-4_10. ISBN 978-3-319-52925-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
  95.  “Free money wouldn’t make people lazy – but it could revolutionise work | Anna Dent”. The Guardian. 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
  96.  Bidadanure, Juliana Uhuru (11 May 2019). “The Political Theory of Universal Basic Income”. Annual Review of Political Science. 22 (1): 481–501. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-070954. ISSN 1094-2939.
  97.  “Universal basic income is here—it just looks different from what you expected”. MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 5 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022.
  98.  Jödicke, Frank (18 April 2020). “Grundeinkommen überwindet mit der Lohnarbeit den Kern der kapitalistischen Vergesellschaftung”. Telepolis (in German). Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  99.  Pega, Frank; Liu, Sze; Walter, Stefan; Pabayo, Roman; Saith, Ruhi; Lhachimi, Stefan (2017). “Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries”. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (4) CD011135. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub2. PMC 6486161. PMID 29139110.
  100.  Pega, Frank; Pabayo, Roman; Benny, Claire; Lee, Eun-Young; Lhachimi, Stefan; Liu, Sze (2022). “Unconditional cash transfers for reducing poverty and vulnerabilities: effect on use of health services and health outcomes in low- and middle-income countries”. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022 (3) CD011135. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011135.pub3. PMC 8962215. PMID 35348196. S2CID 247776585.
  101.  “Opinion – Basic income: just what the doctor ordered”. Toronto Star. 26 August 2015. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  102.  Forget, Evelyn L. (2011). “The Town With No Poverty: The Health Effects of a Canadian Guaranteed Annual Income Field Experiment”. Canadian Public Policy. 37 (3): 283–305. doi:10.3138/cpp.37.3.283.
  103.  “Innovation series: Does the gig economy mean ‘endless possibilities’ or the death of jobs?”. 8 October 2016. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2019.
  104.  Krahe, Dialika (10 August 2009). “How a Basic Income Program Saved a Namibian Village”. Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
  105.  “BRAZIL: Basic Income in Quatinga Velho celebrates 3-years of operation | BIEN”. Basicincome.org. 7 June 2012. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  106.  “INDIA: Basic Income Pilot Project Finds Positive Results,” Archived 9 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine Basic Income News, BIEN (22 September 2012)
  107.  Tognini, Giacomo (23 February 2017). “Universal Basic Income, 5 Experiments From Around The World”. worldcrunch.com. WorldCrunch. Archived from the original on 14 June 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  108.  Roy, Abhishek (31 October 2016). “Part 2 of SPI’s Universal Basic Income Series”. Seven Pillars Institute. Archived from the original on 7 March 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
  109.  “Iran’s Citizen’s Income Scheme and its Lessons”. BIEN — Basic Income Earth Network. 21 May 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
  110.  Tabatabai, Hamid (5 October 2011). “The Basic Income Road to Reforming Iran’s Price Subsidies”. Basic Income Studies. 6 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1172. ISSN 1932-0183.
  111.  “Economic jihad”. The Economist. 23 June 2011. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  112.  “Iran introduced a basic income scheme, and something strange happened”. World Economic Forum. 31 May 2017. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  113.  Tabatabai, Hamid (2012), Caputo, Richard K. (ed.), “Iran: A Bumpy Road toward Basic Income”, Basic Income Guarantee and Politics, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 285–300, doi:10.1057/9781137045300_16, ISBN 978-1-349-29762-7, archived from the original on 22 October 2021, retrieved 9 February 2021
  114.  “Real Decreto-ley 20/2020, de 29 de mayo, por el que se establece el ingreso mínimo vital”. boe.es. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
  115.  Ock, Hyun-ju (11 August 2020). “Gyeonggi Province sets example for universal basic income”. The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  116.  Li, Fan (12 July 2021). “Is Universal Basic Income the Key to Happiness in Asia?”. Stanford Social Innovation Review. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
  117.  Mathews, Dylan (6 March 2017). “This Kenyan village is a laboratory for the biggest basic income experiment ever”. Vox.com. Vox. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  118.  “How a universal basic income stabilized Kenyans in bad times”. MIT Sloan. October 2020. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  119.  Suri, Tavneet (15 November 2020). “Universal basic income helped Kenyans weather COVID-19 – but it’s not a silver bullet”. The Conversation. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  120.  “EIGHT HOME”. eight.world. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  121.  Henley, Jon (1 August 2018). “Money for nothing: is Finland’s universal basic income trial too good to be true?”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  122.  Sodha, Sonia (19 February 2017). “Is Finland’s basic universal income a solution to automation, fewer jobs and lower wages?”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2017.
  123.  Henley, Jon (1 August 2018). “Finland to end basic income trial after two years”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
  124.  Monsebraaten, Laurie (24 April 2017). “Ontario launches basic income pilot for 4,000 in Hamilton, Thunder Bay, Lindsay”. Toronto Star. Star Media Group. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  125.  “Ontario Basic Income, Pilot”. ontario.ca. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2018.
  126.  “GoodDollar: Send Not For Whom The Bell Tolls, It Tolls For Thee”. The Fintech Times. 17 May 2019. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  127.  Moya, Valentina (23 November 2018). “GoodDollar: cryptocurrencies would end inequality”. LatinAmerican Post. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  128.  “Telangana proposes Rs 5L insurance cover, Rs 12,000 crore support scheme for farmers”. The Economic Times. 15 March 2018. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
  129.  “Social Income”. socialincome.org. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  130.  Davidson (now), Helen; Doherty (earlier), Ben (30 August 2020). “Coronavirus live news: Global cases pass 25m; Auckland prepares to exit lockdown”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
  131.  Payne, Adam (19 August 2020). “Germany is beginning a universal-basic-income trial with people getting $1,400 a month for 3 years”. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 20 August 2020.
  132.  “Grundeinkommen ist finanzierbar”. finanzierung.mein-grundeinkommen.de (in German). Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  133.  “Andrew Yang Universal Basic Income Cases Experiment Upstate New York”. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  134.  “Universal basic income pilot program to launch in Hudson”. 11 May 2020. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  135.  “Some New Yorkers to get 500 per month for 5 years from Andrew Yang Foundation”. 11 May 2020. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  136.  “Universal basic income to be tested in Wales – BBC News”. BBC. 15 May 2021. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  137.  “Wales pilots Basic Income scheme”. Welsh Government. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
  138.  “Chicago Resilient Communities Pilot Now Fully Enrolled With 5,000 Participants Receiving $500 Payments in August”. www.chicago.gov. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  139.  “Illinois guaranteed income program to give thousands $500 a month”. www.cbsnews.com. 10 October 2022. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  140.  Ali Hussen, Dahaba (4 June 2023). “Universal basic income of £1,600 a month to be trialled in two places in England”. The Guardian. Retrieved 26 August 2023.
  141.  Cameron, Hugh (27 July 2025). “Countries testing a universal basic income in 2025”. Newsweek. Retrieved 28 September 2025.
  142.  최 (Choi), 찬흥 (Chan) (26 February 2025). “경기 24개 시군서 농어민기회소득 지급…농민기본소득과 통합 | 연합뉴스 (A “Farmers’ opportunity income” to be paid in 24 cities in Gyeonggi-do, and integrated with farmers’ basic income)”. 연합뉴스 (yna) (in Korean). Retrieved 28 September 2025.
  143.  Husain, Saman (9 March 2025). “Delhi clears Rs 2,500 monthly payout for women, earmarks Rs 5,100 crore”. The Indian Express. Retrieved 28 September 2025.
  144.  Berman, Matthew (1 June 2018). “Resource rents, universal basic income, and poverty among Alaska’s Indigenous peoples”. World Development. 106: 161–172. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.01.014. ISSN 0305-750X.
  145.  DeMarban, Alex (28 September 2019). “This year’s Alaska Permanent Fund dividend: $1,606”. Anchorage Daily News. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2020. [See graphs] The annual check this year will be delivered to 631,000 Alaskans, most of the state population, and come largely from earnings of the state’s $64 billion fund that for decades has been seeded with income from oil-production revenue. … This year’s dividend amount, similar to last year’s, is in line with the average annual payment since they began at $1,000 in 1982 when inflation is taken into account, said Mouhcine Guettabi, an economist with the University of Alaska Anchorage Institute of Social and Economic Research.
  146.  Widerquist, Karl (14 February 2012). Alaska’s Permanent Fund Dividend. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-01502-0. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  147.  Widerquist, Karl (19 February 2016). Exporting the Alaska Model. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-03165-5. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2022.
  148.  “Benefit or burden? The cities trying out universal basic income”. The Guardian. 27 June 2018. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  149.  Osborn, Catherine (31 August 2020). “Coronavirus-Hit Brazil Considers Major Public Funds For Poor And Unemployed”. NPR. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020. Family allowance – Brazil is renowned for its massive, nearly 2-decade-old cash-transfer program for the poor, Bolsa Família (often translated as “family allowance”). As of March, it reached 13.8 million families, paying an average of $34 per month. (The national minimum wage is about $190 per month.)
  150.  Sutter, John (9 March 2015). “The argument for a basic income”. CNN. Retrieved 29 September 2025.
  151.  “Bundestag will Petition zum bedingungslosen Grundeinkommen ohne Diskussion abschließen › Piratenpartei Deutschland”. Piratenpartei.de. Archived from the original on 23 June 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  152.  “Deutscher Bundestag – Problematische Auswirkungen auf Arbeitsanreize” (in German). Bundestag.de. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  153.  “More than 280,000 sign EU initiative for basic income”. BIEN. 15 January 2014. Archived from the original on 21 October 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
  154.  “Spanish Popular initiative for basic income collects 185.000 signatures”. Basicincome.org. 10 October 2015. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  155.  “Vorlage Nr. 601 – Vorläufige amtliche Endergebnisse”. admin.ch (in Swiss High German). Archived from the original on 4 August 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  156.  Schiller, Ben (5 February 2016). “Switzerland Will Hold The World’s First Universal Basic Income Referendum”. Fastcoexist.com. Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  157.  “EU Survey: 64% of Europeans in Favour of Basic Income”. Basicincome.org. 23 May 2016. Archived from the original on 26 May 2016. Retrieved 5 June 2016.
  158.  “US: New POLITICO/Morning Consult poll finds that 43% of Americans are in favour of a UBI – Basic Income News”. 5 October 2017. Archived from the original on 7 May 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  159.  Ioannou, Filipa (27 February 2018). “Free money? Majority of Millennials now favor universal basic income, poll finds”. San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  160.  “Österreich: Volksbegehren für Grundeinkommen gescheitert”. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). ISSN 0174-4909. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  161.  “New study reveals most Europeans support basic income after COVID-19”. University of Oxford. 6 May 2020. Archived from the original on 7 December 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  162.  Stone, Jon (27 April 2020). “Public support universal basic income”. The Independent. Archived from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
  163.  Bowden, John (30 March 2020). “Majority of young Americans support universal basic income, public healthcare: poll”. The Hill. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
  164.  Stone, Jon (20 March 2020). “Over 170 MPs and Lords call for universal basic income during pandemic”. The Independent. Archived from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
  165.  Gilberstadt, Hannah (19 August 2020). “More Americans oppose than favor the government providing a universal basic income for all adult citizens”. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  166.  Schulte, Gabriela (14 August 2020). “Poll: Majority of voters now say the government should have a universal basic income program”. The Hill. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  167.  “Bedingungsloses Grundeinkommen in Deutschland 2018”. Statista (in German). Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
  168.  Hutchens, Gareth (10 December 2020). “A majority of Australians would welcome a universal basic income, survey finds”. abc.net.au. ABC News. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  169.  Shalvey, Kevin (4 July 2021). “Stimulus-check petitions calling for the 4th round of $2,000 monthly payments gain almost 3 million signatures”. Business Insider. Archived from the original on 4 July 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.

Further reading

By date of publication:

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Basic income guarantee.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Universal basic income.

vtePoverty
vteUniversal basic income topics
Authority control databases 

Categories: 

Posted in New Essays permalink

About joelsnell99

Who's Who in all U.S and U.K. Honoraries (Marquis) Numerous publications in over 80 venues DANA SPIRIT AWARD/2009 Oxford Roundtable, Editor of FOCUS, a student Social Science Journal Author Snell Life Cycle Lonliness Curve Professor Emeritus - Kirkwood College Omicron Delta Kappa Grants Online Editor for Psychology and Education.com Research Fellow - Arlington Institute Outstanding Teacher at Kirkwood College Membership in numerous editorial boards or a reviewer of manuscripts Associate Editor - Psychology and Education Co-Author of Snell-Green Professor Index Author of Snell Educator Effectiveness Index Contributer to FutureEdition.com Co-Author of Snell-Allen Medical Rank Index Fellow in Kennedy Foundation Co-Author of Snell-Allen Subjective Assessment Sex Role Index Honors >>> Positions and Courses Taught >>> joelsnell@hotmail.com http://www.socialvibes.net Research Council, Advisory Board

Comments are closed.

↑