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Iran

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Coordinates: 32°N 53°E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the country in West Asia. For other uses, see Iran (disambiguation).

“Persia” redirects here. Not to be confused with Persis. For other uses, see Persia (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Iraq.

This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. Consider splitting content into sub-articles, condensing it, or adding subheadings. Please discuss this issue on the article’s talk page. (June 2025)

Islamic Republic of Iranجمهوری اسلامی ایران (Persian) Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân
Flag Emblem
Motto: اَللَّٰهُ أَكْبَرُ Allāhu ʾakbar (Takbir) “God is the Greatest” (de jure) استقلال، آزادی، جمهوری اسلامی Esteqlâl, Âzâdi, Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi “Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic” (de facto)^[1]
Anthem: سرود ملی جمهوری اسلامی ایران Sorud-e Melli-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân “National Anthem of the Islamic Republic of Iran“Duration: 58 seconds.0:58
Show globeShow map of IranShow all
Capitaland largest city	Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E
Official languages	Persian
Demonym(s)	Iranian
Government	Unitary presidential theocratic Islamic republic

• Supreme Leader	Ali Khamenei
• President	Masoud Pezeshkian
• Vice President	Mohammad Reza Aref
• Speaker of the Assembly	Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf
• Chief Justice	Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje’i
Legislature	Islamic Consultative Assembly
Formation

• Median kingdom	c. 678 BC
• Achaemenid Empire	550 BC
• Parthian Empire	247 BC
• Sasanian Empire	224 AD
• Iranian Intermezzo	821
• Safavid Iran	22 December 1501
• Afsharid Iran	22 January 1736
• Zand Iran	1751
• Qajar Iran	20 March 1794
• Constitutional Revolution	12 December 1905
• Pahlavi Iran	15 December 1925
• Iranian Revolution	11 February 1979
• Current constitution	3 December 1979
• Constitution amendment	28 July 1989
Area
• Total	1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi) (17th)
• Water (%)	1.63 (as of 2015)^[2]
Population
• 2025 estimate	92,417,681^[3] (17th)
• Density	52/km² (134.7/sq mi) (132nd)
GDP (PPP)	2025 estimate
• Total	$1.746 trillion^[4] (23rd)
• Per capita	$19,957^[4] (95th)
GDP (nominal)	2025 estimate
• Total	$341.013 billion^[4] (37th)
• Per capita	$3,897^[4] (120th)
Gini (2022)	34.8^[5] medium inequality
HDI (2023)	0.799^[6] high (75th)
Currency	Iranian Rial (ریال) (IRR)
Time zone	UTC+3:30 (IRST)
Calling code	+98
ISO 3166 code	IR
Internet TLD	.ir ایران.

You may need rendering support to display the Persian text in this article correctly.

Iran,^[a] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI)^[b] and also known as Persia,^[c] is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population.^[8] It is the sixth-largest country in Asia and one of the world’s most mountainous countries. Iran is officially an Islamic republic, divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nation’s capital, largest city and financial centre.

A cradle of civilization, Iran was inhabited by the Elamites beginning 3200 BCE. A large part of Iran was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the seventh century BCE and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BCE, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BCE. An Iranian rebellion in the third century BCE established the Parthian Empire, which later liberated the country. In the third century CE, the Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, whose era was considered a golden age in the history of Iranian civilisation. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, religion and administration. Once a centre for Zoroastrianism, the Muslims conquered the region in the seventh century CE, leading to the Islamization of Iran. The literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art which blossomed during the Sasanian era were renewed during the Islamic Golden Age and Iranian Intermezzo, when a series of Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule, revived the Persian language and ruled the country. This era was followed by Seljuk and Khwarazmian rule, Mongol conquests and the Timurid Renaissance from the 11th to 14th centuries.

In the 16th century, the native Safavid dynasty re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shia Islam as the official religion. During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was a leading world power, but this was no longer the case after the Qajars took power in the 1790s. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty by Reza Shah, who ousted the last Qajar Shah in 1925. Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalise the oil industry led to the Anglo-American coup in 1953. The Iranian Revolution in 1979 overthrew the monarchy, and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini, the country’s first supreme leader. In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War, which ended in a stalemate. Iran is a threshold state with a longstanding nuclear program it claims is solely for civilian purposes. This claim has been disputed by Israel and others.

Iran is officially governed as a unitary Islamic republic, with a presidential system and a supreme leader. The government is authoritarian and violates human rights and civil liberties. Iran is a major regional power, due to its large reserves of fossil fuels (including the world’s second largest natural gas supply and third largest proven oil reserves), its geopolitically significant location, and role as the world’s focal point of Shia Islam. Iran is a founding member of the United Nations, OIC, OPEC, and ECO as well as a current member of the NAM, SCO, and BRICS. Iran has 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the 10th-highest in the world, and ranks 5th in intangible cultural heritage, or human treasures. It has a multi-ethnic population.

Name

This section is an excerpt from Name of Iran.[edit]

Historically, Iran was commonly referred to as “Persia” in the Western world.^[9] Likewise, the modern-day ethnonym “Persian” was typically used as a demonym for all Iranian nationals, regardless of whether or not they were ethnic Persians. This terminology prevailed until 1935, when, during an international gathering for Nowruz, the Iranian king Reza Shah Pahlavi officially requested that foreign delegates begin using the endonym “Iran” in formal correspondence. Subsequently, “Iran” and “Iranian” were standardized as the terms referring to the country and its citizens, respectively. Later, in 1959, Pahlavi’s son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi announced that it was appropriate to use both “Persia” and “Iran” in formal correspondence.^[10] However, the issue is still debated among Iranians.^[11] A variety of scholars from the Middle Ages, such as the Khwarazmian polymath Al-Biruni, also used terms like “Xuniras” (Avestan: Xvaniraθa-, transl. ”self-made, not resting on anything else”) to refer to Iran: “which is the center of the world, […] and it is the one wherein we are, and the kings called it the Iranian realm.”^[12]

History

Main article: History of Iran

Further information: Timeline of Iranian history

Antiquity

Further information: Medes and Indo-Iranians

Iran is home to one of the world’s oldest continuous major civilisations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.^[13] The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other people’s such as the Kassites, Mannaeans, and Gutians.

The Median dynasty ruled the earliest Iranian state.^[14]^[15]^[16] In 612 BC, Cyaxares and the Babylonian king Nabopolassar invaded Assyria and destroyed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, which led to the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.^[17] Urartu was later on conquered and dissolved as well by the Medes.^[18]^[19]^[20]

Achaemenid Empire

Main article: Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I‘s son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I’s son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire,^[21] the largest ever Iranian state.^[20] He conquered the Lydian and Neo-Babylonian empires, creating an empire far larger than Assyria. He was better able, through more benign policies, to reconcile his subjects to Persian rule; the longevity of his empire was one result. The Persian king, like the Assyrian, was also “King of Kings“, xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām – “great king”, Megas Basileus, as known by the Greeks. Cyrus’s son, the Cambyses II (r. 530–522 BC), conquered the last major power of the region, ancient Egypt, causing the collapse of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt.

After the death of Cambyses II, the Darius I (r. 522–486) ascended the throne by overthrowing the Achaemenid monarch Bardiya. Darius’ first capital was at Susa, and he started the building program at Persepolis. He improved the extensive road system, and during his reign mentions are first made of the Royal Road, a highway from Susa to Sardis.^[22]

In 499 BC, Athens supported a revolt in Miletus, resulting in the sacking of Sardis. This led to the Greco-Persian Wars, which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. In the First Persian invasion of Greece, Persian general Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedon a full part of Persia.^[23] The war eventually turned out in defeat. Darius’ successor Xerxes I (r. 486–465) launched the Second Persian invasion of Greece. At a crucial moment in the war, about half of mainland Greece was overrun by the Persians, including territories to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth.^[24]^[25] This was reversed by a Greek victory, following the battles of Plataea and Salamis, by which Persia lost its footholds in Europe, and withdrew from it.^[26]

The empire entered a period of decline. From 334 BC to 331 BC, Alexander the Great defeated Darius III (r. 336–330 BC) in the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, swiftly conquering the Achaemanid Empire by 331 BC. Alexander’s empire broke up after his death, and Alexander’s general, Seleucus I Nicator, tried to take control of Iran, Mesopotamia, and later Syria and Anatolia. His empire was the Seleucid Empire.

The Parthian and Sasanian Empires

Main articles: Parthian Empire and Sasanian Empire

The Arsacids of Parthia,^[27] initially Seleucid vassals,^[28] originated as leaders of the Iranian^[d] Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes.^[31] The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran.^[32] Parthian control of Iran was secured through the c. 142 BC conquest of Babylonia.^[27]^[32] Although fighting continued, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire,^[32] which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC.^[27]

The Parthian empire endured for five centuries, but civil wars destabilized it. Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I, ruler of Istakhr in Persis, revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV, in 224 AD. Ardashir established the Sasanian Empire, which ruled Iran and much of Near East before the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD.^[33]

At their zenith, the Sasanians controlled all of modern-day Iran and Iraq and parts of the Arabian Peninsula, as well as the Caucasus, the Levant, and parts of Central Asia and South Asia.^[34] The Sasanian Empire was characterized by a complex and centralized government bureaucracy and the revitalization of Zoroastrianism as a legitimizing and unifying ideal.^[35] This period saw the construction of many grand monuments, public works, and patronized cultural and educational institutions. Under the Sasanians, Iran’s cultural influence spread far beyond the physical territory that it controlled, impacting regions as distant as Western Europe,^[36] Eastern Africa,^[37] and China and India.^[38]^{[full citation needed]}

Medieval period

Main articles: Iranian Intermezzo, Tahirid dynasty, Saffarid dynasty, Ziyarid dynasty, Samanids, Sajid dynasty, Sallarid dynasty, Ilyasids, Buyid dynasty, Kakuyids, Seljuk Empire, Khwarazmian Empire, and Ilkhanate

Most of the Sasanian Empire’s lifespan was overshadowed by the frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, a continuation of the Roman–Parthian Wars. These wars weakened the empire and contributed to the Islamic conquest of Persia. The Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Sasanian Empire between 632 and 654.

Over time, the majority of Iranians converted to Islam. Most of the aspects of the previous Persian civilizations were not discarded but were absorbed by the new Islamic polity.^[39]

Early Islamic rule and regional resistance in Iran

After the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651, the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate adopted many Persian customs, especially the administrative and the court mannerisms. Arab provincial governors were undoubtedly either Persianized Arameans or ethnic Persians; certainly, Persian remained the language of official business of the caliphate until the adoption of Arabic toward the end of the seventh century.^[40]

However, all of Iran was still not under Arab control, and the region of Daylam was under the control of the Daylamites, while Tabaristan was under Dabuyid and Paduspanid control, and the Mount Damavand region under Masmughans of Damavand. The Arabs had invaded these regions several times but achieved no decisive result because of the inaccessible terrain of the regions. The most prominent ruler of the Dabuyids, known as Farrukhan the Great (r. 712–728), managed to hold his domains during his long struggle against the Arab general Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, who was defeated by a combined Daylamite–Dabuyid army, and was forced to retreat from Tabaristan.^[41]

The Abbasid revolution and Iranian Renaissance

Anti-Umayyad insurrections were supported by non-Arab Islamic converts, who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad’s uncle, Abbas.^[42]

The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries.^[43] In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties,^[43] ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance.^[44] The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the “Iranian Intermezzo”.^[44]

The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties.^[44] Among the most important of these overlapping dynasties were the Tahirids in Khorasan (821–873); the Saffarids in Sistan (861–1003, their rule lasted as maliks of Sistan until 1537); and the Samanids (819–1005), originally at Bukhara. The Samanids eventually ruled an area from central Iran to Pakistan.

By early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control to the growing Iranian faction known as the Buyid dynasty (934–1062). Since much of the Abbasid administration had been Persian, the Buyids were quietly able to assume real power in Baghdad. The Buyids were defeated in the mid-11th century by the Seljuq Turks, who continued to exert influence over the Abbasids.

Islamization and Persianization

Islamization of Iran was a long process. As Persian Muslims consolidated their rule, the Muslim population rose from approximately 40% in the mid-9th century to close to 90% by the end of the 11th century. Seyyed Hossein Nasr suggests that the rapid increase in conversion was aided by the Persian nationality of the rulers.^[45] Although Persians adopted the religion of their conquerors, over the centuries they worked to protect and revive their distinctive language and culture, a process known as Persianization. Arabs and Turks participated in this attempt.^[46]^[47]^[48]

The Seljuks and the Mongol invasions

From the empire’s inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title šāhānšāh (lit. ’King of Kings’) in its Persian form,^[49] perhaps adopting it from the Buyids.^[50] The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent.^[51] One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans.^[52] In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.^[53] The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm.^[54] Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.^[54]

In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols reached Iran.^[55] The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220^[56] and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed.^[54] During 1220–21 Bukhara, Samarkand, Herat, Tus and Nishapur were razed, and the whole populations were slaughtered. Over the following decades, further conquests followed, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate‘s rule there in 1258.^[57]

The Ilkhanate and aftermath

The Ilkhanate was one of the four major divisions of the Mongol Empire after the death of Genghis Khan

After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented.^[57] In much of the south-west of the empire, including Iran, power fell to Hulegu Khan,^[58] who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan.^[57]

Hulegu was accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was legitimized through a fatwa issued by the Shia scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli.^[59] Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule.^[59] Ghazan Khan converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.^[58]

After Ghazan’s nephew Abu Said died in 1335, the Ilkhanate lapsed into civil war and was divided between several petty dynasties – most prominently the Jalayirids, Muzaffarids, Sarbadars and Kartids. The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 30% of the country’s population.^[60]

Timur and the rise of new powers

Iran remained divided until the arrival of Timur (r. 1370–1405), who was of Turkified Mongol origin^[61] and the founder of Timurid dynasty. Like its predecessors, the Timurid Empire was also part of the Persianate world. After establishing a power base in Transoxiana, Timur invaded Iran in 1381 and eventually conquered most of it. Timur’s campaigns were known for their brutality; many people were slaughtered and several cities were destroyed.^[62] In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, killing 70,000 people.^[63]

His successors, the Timurids, maintained a hold on most of Iran until 1452, when they lost the bulk of it to the Qara Qoyunlu. The Qara Qoyunlu were conquered by the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan in 1468; Uzun Hasan and his successors were the masters of Iran until the rise of the Safavids.^[62]

Early modern period

Main articles: Safavid Empire, Afsharid Iran, Zand dynasty, Qajar dynasty, Portuguese–Safavid wars, and Ottoman–Persian Wars

Often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history,^[64] the Safavids establish the basis for the modern nation-state of Iran.^[65] The rule of the dynasty founded by Ismail I (r. 1501–1524) was one of the most important periods in Iranian history in terms of remaking Iran as a separate entity and making the Shia Islam as the official religion.^[66]

The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722, experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736. At their height, they controlled all of modern Iran, Azerbaijan and Armenia, most of Georgia, the North Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait and Afghanistan, as well as parts of Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic “gunpowder empires“, along with its neighbours, its archrival and principal enemy the Ottoman Empire, and to the east, the Mughal Empire.

The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a sayyid, or descendant of Muhammad. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran, Jean Chardin thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner.^[67]

Collapse of the Safavid Empire and successor dynasties

Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan.^[64]^[68] The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah (r. 1736–1747) and Karim Khan (r. 1751–1779), respectively.^[68]

Nader Shah and the shifting balance of power

Rise of the Qajar dynasty and foreign interference

The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman^[74] noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids.^[72] The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands.^[74] Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794^[72] and was officially crowned in 1796.^[75] Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.^[74]

In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in the Caucasus to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian Wars.^[76] At the same time, Britain became increasingly involved in southern Iran, wishing to provide a counterweight to Russia’s presence in the north, which posed a threat to British India.^[77] This was solidified by the establishment of the Indo-European Telegraph Department in the 1860s; and the Imperial Bank of Persia by an English company in 1889.^[78] By the end of the 19th century, this dominance had become so pronounced that Iran’s central government in Tehran required Anglo-Russian approval for ministerial appointments.^[77] The Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871 is believed to have caused the death of two million people.^[79]

20th century up to the Iranian Revolution

Main article: Pahlavi Iran

Constitutional Revolution and the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty

Reza Shah Pahlavi with Mohammad Reza Pahlavi at Persepolis

The Persian Constitutional Revolution between 1905 and 1911 led to the establishment of an Iranian parliament.^[80] After the 1921 coup d’état, the Qajar dynasty was replaced with the Pahlavi dynasty.^[81]

Reza Shah ruled for almost 16 years until 1941, when he was forced to abdicate by the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. He established an authoritarian government that valued nationalism, militarism, secularism and anti-communism combined with strict censorship and state propaganda.^[82] Reza Shah introduced many socio-economic reforms, reorganizing the army, government administration, and finances.^[83]

To his supporters, his reign brought “law and order, discipline, central authority, and modern amenities – schools, trains, buses, radios, cinemas, and telephones”.^[84] However, his attempts of modernisation have been criticised for being “too fast”^[85] and “superficial”,^[86] and his reign was designated as a time of “oppression, corruption, taxation, lack of authenticity” with “security typical of police states.”^[84]

World War II and post-occupation instability

While German armies were highly successful against the Soviet Union, the Iranian government expected Germany to win the war and establish a powerful force on its borders. It rejected British and Soviet demands to expel German residents from Iran. In response, the two Allies invaded in August 1941 and easily overwhelmed the weak Iranian army in Operation Countenance. Iran became the major conduit of Allied Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union. The purpose was to secure Iranian oil fields and ensure Allied supply lines, through the Persian Corridor. Iran remained officially neutral. Rezā Shāh was deposed during the subsequent occupation and replaced with his young son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.^[87] At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied “Big Three”—Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran.^[88]

Initially, there were hopes that post-occupation Iran could become a constitutional monarchy. The new, young Shah took a very hands-off role in government, and allowed parliament to hold a lot of power. Some elections were held in the first shaky years, although they remained mired in corruption. Parliament became chronically unstable. From 1947 to 1951, Iran saw the rise and fall of six prime ministers.

Mosaddeq and the Shah’s rule

The Islamic Revolution, Khamenei, and after

Main articles: Iranian Revolution and History of the Islamic Republic of Iran

The Iranian Revolution^[92] transformed Iran from an absolute monarchy to an Islamic republic founded by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a leader of the revolution.^[93] It included the approval of a new theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader, in December 1979. Iran’s modernising, capitalist economy was replaced by populist Islamic economic and cultural policies. Industries were nationalized, laws and schools Islamicized, and Western influence restricted.^[94]

Khomeini, Iran-Iraq War, and leadership transition

An event with long-term impact was the Iran hostage crisis. After the former Shah of Iran went to the US for cancer treatment, on 4 November 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a “den of spies.”^[95] 52 hostages were held for 444 days until January 1981.^[96]

Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein attempted to take advantage of the disorder of the revolution, the weakness of the Iranian military and the revolution’s antagonism with Western governments. On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran–Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran by surprise. Although Hussein’s forces made early advances, Iranian forces pushed the Iraqi army back into Iraq by 1982. Khomeini sought to export the revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi’a Arabs living in Iraq. The war continued until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, “drank the cup of poison” and accepted a truce mediated by the UN.

The war, which ended in a stalemate in 1988, killed approximately 500,000 people.^[97] During the war, Saddam extensively used chemical weapons against Iranians.^[98]

Khamenei era

Further information: Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Assassination of Qasem Soleimani, 2024 Iran–Israel conflict, and Iran–Israel war

On his deathbed in 1989, Khomeini appointed a 25-man Constitutional Reform Council which named then president Ali Khamenei as the next Supreme Leader, and made changes to Iran’s constitution.^[99] A smooth transition followed Khomeini’s death on 3 June 1989. While Khamenei lacked Khomeini’s “charisma and clerical standing”, he developed a network of supporters within Iran’s armed forces and its economically powerful religious foundations.^[100]

Reform era (1989–2005)

In 1989, President Akbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy, without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market, favouring privatisation of state industries and a moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government advocated freedom of expression, constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union, and policy that supported a free market and foreign investment.

Iranian nuclear program, principalist dominance (2005–2024)

The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist and nationalist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards Israel, Saudi Arabia, the UK, US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the parliament to answer questions regarding his presidency.^[101] In 2013, centrist and reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected president. He encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women’s rights. He improved Iran’s diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters.^[102] The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was reached in Vienna in 2015, between Iran, the P5+1 (UN Security Council + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centred around ending the economic sanctions in exchange for Iran’s restriction in producing enriched uranium.^[103] In 2018, the US under Trump withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions and brought Iran to nuclear threshold status.^[104] In 2020, IRGC general, Qasem Soleimani, the 2nd-most powerful person in Iran,^[105] was assassinated by the US, heightening tensions between them.^[106] Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq, the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans;^[107] 110 sustained brain injuries.^[108]^[109]^[110]

Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi lost a presidential bid in 2017, but he ran again in 2021, succeeding Hassan Rouhani.^[111] During Raisi’s term, Iran intensified uranium enrichment, hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, supported Russia in its Ukraine invasion and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, the Israeli airstrike on the Iranian consulate in Damascus, killed an IRGC commander.^[112]^[113] Iran retaliated with UAVs, cruise and ballistic missiles; 9 hit Israel.^[114]^[115]^[116] It was the largest drone strike in history,^[117] biggest missile attack in Iranian history,^[118] its first ever direct attack on Israel^[119]^[120] and the first time since 1991, Israel was directly attacked by a state force.^[121] This occurred during heightened tensions amid the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip. Israel conducted another strike the same month. In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a helicopter crash,^[122] and Iran held a presidential election in June, when reformist and former Minister of Health, Masoud Pezeshkian, was elected.^[123]^[124]

On 1 October 2024, Iran launched 180 ballistic missiles at Israel in retaliation for assassinations of Ismail Haniyeh, Hassan Nasrallah and Abbas Nilforoushan. On 27 October, Israel struck Iranian military sites.^[125]

Alleged nuclear breakout attempt, 2025 war (2025–)

Iran’s economic struggles, and the collapse of its key allies and proxies beginning in 2023—Syria’s Assad regime, Hezbollah in Lebanon, and Hamas in Gaza—during Middle eastern hostilities, have left the Iranian government weakened and isolated.^[126]^[127]^[128] In early 2025, Iran was rapidly advancing its nuclear program. Analysts warned such activity exceeded any plausible civilian justification.^[129] Beginning in April, Iran and the US entered negotiations for a new nuclear agreement, but progress stalled as Iran declared domestic uranium enrichment a red line. In June, IAEA found Iran non-compliant with its nuclear obligations for the first time in two decades.^[130] In response, Iran announced the activation of a new enrichment facility.^[131]

On 13 June 2025, Israel launched strikes across Iran, targeting nuclear facilities and killling many top members of Iran’s military leadership.^[132]^[133] Iran retaliated with its own missile strikes, and hostilities have resulted in direct conflict between the two countries. Early on 22 June, the United States joined the war and struck the Iranian nuclear facilities of Fordow, Natanz, and Esfahan.^[134] According to some authors^[who?], both Israel and the United States have been supported by Sunni-majority Arabic states during the war, both implicitly and explicitly,^[135]^[136] while according to other authors, Sunni Arab states attempted to maintain a neutral position in the conflict.^[137]^[138]^[139]^[140]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iran

See also: Borders of Iran and Agriculture in Iran

Mount Damavand, the highest volcano in Asia. It has a special place in Persian mythology.

Forest mountains of Filband region in Mazandaran province

Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km² (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia.^[141] It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi),^[142] and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi).

Iran is in a seismically active area.^[143] On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years.^[144] Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake.

Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau. It is one of the world’s most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus. The populous west part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran’s highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran’s mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries.

The north part is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian forests, near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east part consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country’s largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as salt lakes. The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth’s surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005.^[145]^[146]^[147]^[148] The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman.^[149]^[150]^[151]

Islands

Main article: List of islands of Iran

Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake, 427 in Aras River, several in Anzali Lagoon, Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea, Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and other inland islands. Iran has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman, near Pakistan. A few islands can be visited by tourists. Most are owned by the military or used for wildlife protection. Entry is prohibited or requires a permit.^[152]^[153]^[154]

Iran took control of Bumusa, and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their strategic location.^[155]^[156]^[157]^[158]^[159] Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty,^[160]^[161]^[162] it has consistently been met with a strong response from Iran,^[163]^[164]^[165] based on their historical and cultural background.^[166] Iran has full control over the islands.^[167]

Kish island, as a free trade zone, is touted as a consumer’s paradise, with malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016.^[168]^[169]^[170] Its salt cave, Namakdan, is the largest in the world, and one of the world’s longest caves.^[171]^[172]^[173]^[174]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Iran

Iran’s climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests.^[175] On the north edge of Iran, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).^[176] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the east part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the west part. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that “Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today”.^[177]

To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin have lower temperatures and severe winters, with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts.^[178] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).^[179]

Biodiversity

More than one-tenth of Iran is forested.^[180] About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation.^[181]^[182] Iran’s forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: the Hyrcanian region which forms the green belt of the north side of Iran; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the centre of Iran; the Zagros region, which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region, which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region, which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200 plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora is four times that of Europe’s.^[183] There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 being national parks.

Iran’s living fauna includes 34 bat species, Indian grey mongoose, small Indian mongoose, golden jackal, Indian wolf, foxes, striped hyena, leopard, Eurasian lynx, brown bear and Asian black bear. Ungulate species include wild boar, urial, Armenian mouflon, red deer, and goitered gazelle.^[184]^[185] One of the most famous animals is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, which survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century.^[186] Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep, goat, cattle, horse, water buffalo, donkey and camel. Iran is home to more than 570 bird species like pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcons.^[187]^[188]^[189]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Iran, Politics of Iran, and Elections in Iran

Supreme Leader

Supreme Leader (Persian: رهبر معظم, romanized: Rahbar-e Moazam), the Rahbar, the Leader of the Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar‘s agreement, who has the ultimate say on foreign policy.^[190] The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defence, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, and other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.

The Rahbar directly controls regional policy, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs tasks limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force, which reports to the Rahbar.^[191] The Rahbar can order laws to be amended.^[192] The Setad, a state-owned enterprise under the Rahbar, was valued at $95bn in 2013, accounts of which are secret even to the parliament.^[193]^[194]

The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces,^[e] controls military intelligence and security operations,^[196] and has the sole power to declare war or peace.^[f] The Rahbar also appoints the heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and members of the Guardian Council.

The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Rahbar and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.^[198] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar‘s decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadiq Larijani, appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar.^[199] Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.^[200]^[201]^[202] In February 2025, The New York Times reported that according to Karim Sadjadpour, an expert on Iran at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, there exists in the Islamic Republic of Iran two parallel systems.^[203] One which is ruled by the military and intelligence forces, who report to the Rahbar, and “who oversee the nuclear programme and regional proxies and are tasked with repression, hostage taking and assassinations”.^[203] The other ruled by diplomats and politicians “who are authorized to speak to Western media and officials” and have minimal knowledge of Iran’s nuclear programme.^[203]

The political system is based on the country’s constitution.^[204] Iran was ranked 158th in electoral democracy for year 2024 according to V-Dem Democracy Indices and was an electoral autocracy in the Regimes of the World classification.^[205]^[206] Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that “the Iranian regime combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism“.^[207]

President

Main article: President of Iran

The President is head of government and the second-highest-ranking authority after the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for 4 years. Before elections, nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by the Guardian Council.^[208] The Council’s members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president.^[209] The President can only be re-elected for one term.^[210] The president is the deputy commander-in-chief of the Army, the head of Supreme National Security Council, and has the power to declare a state of emergency after passage by the parliament.

The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say.^[211] The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar.^[212]^[213]

The President appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament and the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister.^[214]^[215]^[216] The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.^[217] Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president.^[218]

Guardian Council

Main article: Guardian Council

Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-member Guardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running to ensure their allegiance.^[219] The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.^[220]

The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by the parliament,^[221]^[222] supervision of elections^[223] and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections.^[224] The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against sharia (Islamic law), or being against the constitution.^[225]

Supreme National Security Council

Main article: Supreme National Security Council

The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) is at the top of the foreign policy decisions process.^[226]^[227]^[228] The council was formed during the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum for the protection and support of national interests, the revolution, territorial integrity and national sovereignty.^[229] It is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution to be presided over by the President.^[230]^[231]

The leader selects the secretary of the Supreme Council, and the council’s decisions are effective after the leader confirms them. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy, and would become effective if the Leader confirms them.^[232]^[233]

Legislature

Main article: Islamic Consultative Assembly

The building of Iranian Parliament (Islamic Consultative Assembly—ICA)

The ICA comprises 290 members.

The legislature, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly (ICA), Iranian Parliament or “Majles”, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four years.^[234] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.^[235]^[236] The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament.^[237]^[238] The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation.^[239]

The Expediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Guardian Council. It serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of Iran’s most powerful governing bodies.^[240]^[225]

The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5 reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, covering one or more of Iran’s counties.

Law

Main article: Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Iran uses the sharia law (based on Ja’fari school) as its legal system, with elements of Civil law. The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts, which deal with certain offenses, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.

The Chief Justice heads the judicial system and is responsible for its administration and supervision. He is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran. The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the President selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms.^[241]

The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed.^[218] The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 “virtuous and learned” clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Regions of Iran, Provinces of Iran, and Counties of Iran

Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces (Persian: استان ostân), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian: مرکز, markaz) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general (استاندار ostândâr), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to the approval of the cabinet.^[242]

Alborz

Ardabil

Bushehr

Chaharmahal
and Bakhtiari

Kohgiluyeh and
Boyer-Ahmad

Sistan and
Baluchestan

A map of Iran’s provinces

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Iran

Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 165 countries, but not the United States and Israel—a state which Iran derecognised in 1979.^[243]

Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political ideologies. Iran and Turkey have been involved in modern proxy conflicts such as in Syria, Libya, and the South Caucasus.^[244]^[245]^[246] However, they have shared common interests, such as the issue of Kurdish separatism and the Qatar diplomatic crisis.^[247]^[248] Iran has a close and strong relationship with Tajikistan.^[249]^[250]^[251]^[252]

Iran formed the Axis of Resistance, a coalition of actors committed to countering the influence of the United States and Israel in the region.^[253]^[254] It most notably includes the Hezbollah in Lebanon, Islamic Resistance and Popular Mobilization Forces in Iraq, and the Houthi movement in Yemen.^[g] It sometimes^[255]^[256] includes Hamas,^[h] and a variety of other Palestinian militant groups.^[257]^[258] Iran has deep economic relations and alliance with Iraq, Lebanon, and was with Syria, which was described as Iran’s “closest ally”.^[259]^[260]^[261] In December 2024, the fall of the Assad regime in Syria, a close ally of Iran, was a severe setback for the political influence of Iran in the region.^[262]

Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves.^[263]^[264] Both share a close economic and military alliance, and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations.^[265]^[266]^[267]^[268] Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join the CSTO, the Russia-based international treaty organisation that parallels NATO.^[269]

Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed a 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include “political, strategic and economic” components.^[270] Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier.^[271]^[272] Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with both North and South Korea.^[273]

Iran is a member of dozens of international organisations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, NAM, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC, WHO, and the UN, and currently has observer status at the WTO.

Military

Main articles: Military history of Iran and Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces

The military is organised under a unified structure, the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces, comprising the Islamic Republic of Iran Army, which includes the Ground Forces, Air Defence Force, Air Force, and Navy; the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, which consists of the Ground Forces, Aerospace Force, Navy, Quds Force, and Basij; and the Police Command (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme. While the IRIAF protects the country’s sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Republic against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots.^[274] Since 1925, all male citizens aged 18 must serve around 14 months in the IRIAF or IRGC.^[275]^[276]

Iran has over 610,000 active troops and around 350,000 reservists, which is at least over 1 million military personnel, one of the world’s highest percentage of citizens with military training.^[277]^[278]^[279]^[280] The Basij, a paramilitary volunteer militia within the IRGC, has over 20 million members, 600,000 available for immediate call-up, 300,000 reservists, and a million that could be mobilised when necessary.^[281]^[282]^[283] Faraja, the Iranian uniformed police force, has over 260,000 active personnel. Most statistical organizations do not include the Basij and Faraja in their rating reports.

Iran ranks 7th in the number of active military personnel,^[284] and 9th in size of both its ground force and armoured force. Iran’s armed forces are the largest in West Asia and comprise the greatest Army Aviation fleet in the Middle East.^[285]^[286]^[287] Iran is among the top 15 countries in terms of military budget.^[288] In 2021, its military spending increased for the first time in four years, to $24.6 billion, 2.3% of the national GDP.^[289] Funding for the IRGC accounted for 34% of Iran’s total military spending in 2021.^[290]

Since the Islamic revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, Iran has developed a domestic military industry capable of producing indigenous tanks, armoured personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, naval vessels, and fighter planes.^[291] Official announcements have highlighted the development of advanced weaponry, particularly in rocketry.^[292]^[i] Consequently, Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East and is only the 5th country in the world with hypersonic missile technology.^[293]^[294] Iran designs and produces a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles.^[295]^[296]^[297] It is one of the world’s five countries with cyberwarfare capabilities and is identified as “one of the most active players in the international cyber arena”.^[298]^[299]^[300]

Following Russia’s purchase of Iranian drones during the invasion of Ukraine,^[301]^[302]^[303] in November 2023, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) finalized arrangements to acquire Russian Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets, Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters, air defence and missile systems.^[304]^[305] The Iranian Navy has had joint exercises with Russia and China.^[306]

Nuclear programme

Main article: Nuclear programme of Iran

Iran’s nuclear programme dates back to the 1950s.^[307] Iran revived it after the Islamic revolution, and its extensive nuclear fuel cycle, including enrichment capabilities, became the subject of intense international negotiations and sanctions.^[308] Many countries have expressed concern Iran could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons programme.^[309] In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan on Action (JCPOA), aiming to end economic sanctions in exchange for restriction in producing enriched uranium.^[310]

In 2018, however, the US withdrew from the deal under the Trump administration and reimposed sanctions. This was met with resistance by Iran and other members of the P5+1.^[311]^[312]^[313] A year later, Iran began decreasing its compliance.^[314] By 2020, Iran announced it would no longer observe any limit set by the agreement.^[315]^[316] Progress since then has brought Iran to the nuclear threshold status.^[317]^[318]^[319] As of November 2023, Iran had uranium enriched to up to 60% fissile content, close to weapon grade.^[320]^[321]^[322]^[323] Some analysts already regard Iran as a de facto nuclear power.^[324]^[325]^[326]

Regional influence

Main articles: Iranian influence in Lebanon, Iranian intervention in the Syrian civil war, and Iranian intervention in Iraq (2014–present)

Iran’s significant influence and foothold was sometimes characterized as the “Dawn of A New Persian Empire.”^[327]^[328]^[329]^[330] Some analysts associated the Iranian influence to the nation’s proud national legacy, empire and history.^[331]^[332]^[333]

After the Revolution, Iran grew its influence across and beyond the region.^[334]^[335]^[336]^[337] It built military forces with a wide network of state and none-state actors, starting with Hezbollah in Lebanon in 1982.^[338]^[339] The IRGC was key to Iranian influence, through its Quds Force.^[340]^[341]^[342] The instability in Lebanon (from the 1980s),^[343] Iraq (from 2003)^[344] and Yemen (from 2014)^[345] allowed Iran to build strong alliances and footholds beyond its borders. Iran had a prominent influence in the social services, education, economy and politics of Lebanon,^[346]^[347] and Lebanon provides Iran access to the Mediterranean Sea.^[348]^[349] Hezbollah’s strategic successes against Israel, such as its symbolic victory during the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, elevated Iran’s influence in the Levant and strengthened its appeal across the Muslim World.^[350]^[351]

After the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the arrival of ISIS in the mid-2010s, Iran financed and trained militia groups in Iraq.^[352]^[353]^[354] After the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s and the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iran shaped Iraq’s politics.^[355]^[356]^[357] Following Iraq’s struggle against ISIS in 2014, companies linked to the IRGC such as Khatam al-Anbiya, started to build roads, power plants, hotels and businesses in Iraq, creating an economic corridor worth around $9 billion before COVID-19.^[358]

During Yemen’s civil war Iran provided military support to the Houthis,^[359]^[360]^[361] a Zaydi Shia movement fighting Yemen’s Sunni government since 2004,^[362]^[363] which gained significant power.^[364]^[365]^[366] Iran has considerable influence in Afghanistan and Pakistan through militant groups such as Liwa Fatemiyoun and Liwa Zainebiyoun.^[367]^[368]^[369]

In Syria, Iran supported President Bashar al-Assad;^[370]^[371] the two countries are long-standing allies.^[372]^[352] Iran provided significant military and economic support to Assad’s government,^[373]^[374] so had a considerable foothold in Syria.^[375]^[376] Iran has long supported organizations in North Africa in countries like Algeria and Tunisia, embracing Hamas in part to help undermine the popularity of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).^[377] Iran’s support of Hamas emerged more clearly in later years.^[378]^[379]^[380]^[381] According to US intelligence, Iran does not have full control over these state and non-state groups.^[382]

Human rights and censorship

Main articles: Human rights in Iran, Capital punishment in Iran, and Censorship in Iran

The entrance to Evin Prison, established in 1972. VICE describes the prison as the “legendary terrifying place that nobody wants to end up.”^[383]

The Iranian government has been denounced by various international organisations and governments for violating human rights.^[384] The government has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government. Iranian law does not recognise sexual orientations. Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by death.^[385]^[386] Capital punishment is a legal punishment, and according to the BBC, Iran “carries out more executions than any other country, except China”.^[387] UN Special Rapporteur Javaid Rehman has reported discrimination against several ethnic minorities in Iran.^[388] A group of UN experts in 2022 urged Iran to stop “systematic persecution” of religious minorities, adding that members of the Baháʼí Faith were arrested, barred from universities, or had their homes demolished.^[389]^[390]

Censorship in Iran is ranked among the most extreme worldwide.^[391]^[392]^[393] Iran has strict internet censorship, with the government persistently blocking social media and other sites.^[394]^[395]^[396] Since January 2021, Iranian authorities have blocked a list of social media platforms; Instagram, WhatsApp, Facebook, Telegram, Twitter and YouTube.^[397]

The 2006 election results were widely disputed, resulting in protests.^[398]^[399]^[400]^[401] The 2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country in response to the economic and political situation.^[402] It was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested.^[403] The 2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, and spread across the country after the government announced increases in fuel prices of up to 300%.^[404] A week-long total Internet shutdown marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors.^[405] Tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.^[406]

Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752 was a scheduled international civilian passenger flight from Tehran to Kyiv, operated by Ukraine International Airlines. On 8 January 2020, the Boeing 737–800 flying the route was shot down by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) shortly after takeoff, killing all 176 occupants on board and leading to protests. An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown, calling it a “human error”.^[407]^[408] Further protests against the government began on 16 September 2022 after a woman named Mahsa Amini died in police custody following her arrest by the Guidance Patrol, known commonly as the “morality police”.^[409]^[410]^[411]^[412]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

As of 2024, Iran has the world’s 19th largest economy (by PPP). It is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.^[413] Services contribute the largest percentage of GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.^[414] The economy is characterised by its hydrocarbon sector, manufacturing and financial services.^[415] With 10% of the world’s oil reserves and 15% of gas reserves, Iran is an energy superpower. Over 40 industries are directly involved in the Tehran Stock Exchange.

Tehran is the economic powerhouse of Iran.^[416] About 30% of Iran’s public-sector workforce and 45% of its large industrial firms are located there, and half those firms’ employees work for government.^[417] The Central Bank of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the currency: the Iranian rial. The government does not recognise trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.^[418] Iran was the first country to introduce a national basic income in Autumn 2010. ^[419] Unemployment was 9% in 2022.^[420]

Budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially petrol, totalling $100 billion in 2022 for energy alone.^[422]^[423] In 2010, the economic reform plan was to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices and increase productivity and social justice.^[424] The administration continues reform, and indicates it will diversify the oil-reliant economy. Iran has developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry.^[425] The government is privatising industries.

Iran has leading manufacturing industries in automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.^[426] Iran is among the world’s top five producers of apricots, cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, Kiwifruit and watermelons.^[427] International sanctions against Iran have damaged the economy.^[428] Iran is one of three countries that has not ratified the Paris Agreement to limit climate change, although academics say it would be good for the country.^[429]

Iran suffers from high inflation^[430]^[431] and especially surging food prices. A major contributing factor is the involvement of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) in the economy,^[432] particularly in the agriculture and food sectors but also due to significant spending on the Axis of Resistance which increase the public deficit.^[433]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Iran

Tourism had been rapidly growing before the COVID-19 pandemic, reaching nearly 9 million foreign visitors in 2019, the world’s third fastest-growing tourism destination.^[435]^[436] In 2022 it expanded its share to 5% of the economy.^[437] Iran’s tourism experienced a growth of 43% in 2023, attracting 6 million foreign tourists.^[438] The government ended visa requirements for 60 countries in 2023.^[439]

98% of visits are for leisure, while 2% are for business, indicating the country’s appeal as a tourist destination.^[440] Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Shiraz and Mashhad.^[441] Travellers from other West Asian countries grew 31% in the first seven months of 2023, surpassing Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.^[442] Domestic tourism is one of the world’s largests; Iranian tourists spent $33bn in 2021.^[443]^[444]^[445] Iran projects investment of $32 billion in the tourism sector by 2026.^[446]

Agriculture and fishery

Main article: Agriculture in Iran

Roughly one-third of Iran’s surface area is suited for farmland. Only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation, and less than one-third of the cultivated area is irrigated. The rest is devoted to dryland farming. Some 92% of agricultural products depend on water.^[447] The western and northwestern portions of the country have the most fertile soils. Iran’s food security index stands at around 96 percent.^[448]^[449]

3% of Iran’s land area is used for grazing and fodder production. Most of the grazing is done on mostly semi-dry rangeland in mountain areas and on areas surrounding the large deserts of Central Iran. Progressive government efforts and incentives during the 1990s, improved agricultural productivity, helping Iran toward its goal of reestablishing national self-sufficiency in food production.

Access to the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and many river basins provides Iran the potential to develop excellent fisheries. The government assumed control of commercial fishing in 1952. Expansion of the fishery infrastructure enabled Iran to harvest an estimated 700,000 tons of fish annually from the southern waters. Since the Revolution, increased attention has been focused on producing fish from inland waters. Between 1976 and 2004, the combined take from inland waters by the state and private sectors increased from 1,100 tons to 110,175 tons.^[450] Iran is the world’s largest producer and exporter of caviar, exporting more than 300 tonnes annually.^[451]^[452]

Industry and services

Main article: Industry of Iran

In 2024, Iran was ranked 16th in global car manufacturing, ahead of the UK, Italy, and Russia.^[454]^[455] It built 1.188 million cars in 2023, a 12% growth compared to the previous years. Iran exports cars to countries such as Venezuela, Russia and Belarus. From 2008 to 2009, Iran leaped to 28th place from 69th in annual industrial production growth rate.^[456] Iranian contractors have been awarded several foreign tender contracts in different fields of construction of dams, bridges, roads, buildings, railroads, power generation, and gas, oil and petrochemical industries. In 2011, some 66 Iranian industrial companies were carrying out projects in 27 countries.^[457] Iran exported over $20 billion worth of technical and engineering services over 2001–2011. The availability of local raw materials, rich mineral reserves, experienced manpower have all played crucial role in winning the bids.^[458]

45% of large industrial firms are located in Tehran, and almost half of their workers work for government.^[459] The Iranian retail industry is largely in the hands of cooperatives, many of them government-sponsored, and of independent retailers in the bazaars. The bulk of food sales occur at street markets, where the Chief Statistics Bureau sets the prices.^[460] Iran’s main exports are to Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Syria, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, France, Canada, Venezuela, Japan, South Korea and Turkey.^[461]^[462]^{[obsolete source]}

Iran’s automotive industry is the second most active industry of Iran, after its oil and gas industry. ITMCO is the biggest tractor manufacturer in the Middle East. Iran is the 12th largest automaker in the world. Construction is one of the most important sectors in Iran accounting for 20–50% of the total private investment.^{[citation needed]}

Iran is ranked among 15 major mineral-rich countries.^[463]^[464] Iran has become self-sufficient in designing, building and operating dams and power plants. Iran is one of the six countries in the world that manufacture gas- and steam-powered turbines.^[465]

Transport

This section is an excerpt from Transport in Iran.[edit]

Iran has a long paved road system linking most of its towns and all of its cities.

Trains operate on 11,106 km (6,942 mi) of railroad track.^[466] The country’s major port of entry is Bandar-Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz. After arriving in Iran, imported goods are distributed throughout the country by trucks and freight trains. The Tehran–Bandar-Abbas railroad, opened in 1995, connects Bandar-Abbas to the railroad system of Central Asia via Tehran and Mashhad. Other major ports include Bandar e-Anzali and Bandar e-Torkeman on the Caspian Sea and Khorramshahr and Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf.

Dozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes. Iran Air, the national airline, was founded in 1962 and operates domestic and international flights.Transport in Iran is inexpensive because of the government’s subsidization of the price of gasoline. The downside is a huge draw on government coffers, economic inefficiency because of highly wasteful consumption patterns, contraband with neighboring countries and air pollution.^[467]

Energy

Main articles: Energy in Iran and Petroleum industry in Iran

Iran is an energy superpower and petroleum plays a key part.^[469]^[470] As of 2023, Iran produced 4% of the world’s crude oil (3.6 million barrels (570,000 m³) per day),^[471] which generates US$36bn^[472] of export revenue and is the main source of foreign currency.^[473] Oil and gas reserves are estimated at 1.2 trn barrels;^[474] Iran holds 10% of world oil reserves and 15% for gas. Iran ranks 3rd in oil reserves^[475] and is OPEC‘s 2nd largest exporter. Iran has the 2nd largest gas reserves,^[476] and 3rd largest natural gas production. In 2019, Iran discovered a southern oil field of 50 bn barrels.^[477]^[478]^[479]^[480] In April 2024, the NIOC discovered 10 giant shale oil deposits, totalling 2.6 bn barrels.^[481]^[482]^[483] Iran plans to invest $500 billion in oil by 2025.^[484]

Iran manufactures 60–70% of its industrial equipment domestically, including turbines, pumps, catalysts, refineries, oil tankers, drilling rigs, offshore platforms, towers, pipes, and exploration instruments.^[485] The addition of new hydroelectric stations and streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33 GW; about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant began in 2009. Iran is the world’s third country to develop GTL technology.^[486]

Demographic trends and intensified industrialisation have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53 GW of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear generation capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant went online in 2011.^[487]^[488]

Despite being an energy superpower as of 2024-2025 Iran suffers from an energy crisis, manifested by many power outages.^[489]^[490]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Iran

Iran has made considerable advances in science and technology, despite international sanctions. In the biomedical sciences, Iran’s Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.^[491] In 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep at the Royan Research Centre in Tehran.^[492] Stem cell research is among the top 10 in the world.^[493] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.^[494]^[495]^[496] Iranian scientists outside Iran have made major scientific contributions. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.^[497]

Cardiologist Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research in diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Many papers in string theory are published in Iran.^[498] In 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, and Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.^[499]

Iran increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and ranked first in output growth rate, followed by China.^[500] According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in research output by 2018, if the trend persisted.^[501] The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five most prominent robots, after analysing its performance.^[502]

According to a 2019 study by Isabel Campos-Varela et al., Iran recorded the highest proportion of retracted publications globally, with 15.52 retractions per 10,000 publications. Media reports from 2023 indicate that Iran continues to rank among the countries with the highest retraction rates. Common types of misconduct include fraudulent peer review processes, plagiarism, and data fabrication. Data from the Retraction Watch Leaderboard further highlights that two of the 32 individuals with the highest number of retracted articles worldwide are based in Iran.^[503] Iran was ranked 64th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.^[504]

Iranian Space Agency

Main articles: Iranian Space Agency, Iranian Space Research Center, and Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Aerospace Force

The Iranian Space Agency (ISA) was established in 2004. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009,^[505] and is a founding member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Revolution, in 2009,^[506] through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir. It became the 9th country capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.^[507] Simorgh‘s launch in 2016, is the successor of Safir.^[508]

In January 2024, Iran launched the Soraya satellite into its highest orbit yet (750 km),^[509]^[510] a new space launch milestone for the country.^[511]^[512] It was launched by Qaem 100 rocket.^[513]^[514] Iran also successfully launched 3 indigenous satellites, The Mahda, Kayan and Hatef,^[515] into orbit using the Simorgh carrier rocket.^[516]^[517] It was the first time in the country’s history that it simultaneously sent three satellites into space.^[518]^[519] The three satellites are designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems, space-based positioning technology, and narrowband communication.^[520]

In February 2024, Iran launched its domestically developed imaging satellite, Pars 1, from Russia into orbit.^[521]^[522] This was the second time since August 2022, when Russia launched another Iranian remote-sensing, Khayyam satellite, into orbit from Kazakhstan, reflecting deep scientific cooperation between the countries.^[523]^[524]

Telecommunication

Main articles: Communications in Iran, Telecommunication Company of Iran, and Iran Electronics Industries

Iran’s telecommunications industry is almost entirely state-owned, dominated by the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI). As of 2020, 70 million Iranians use high-speed mobile internet. Iran is among the first five countries which have had a growth rate of over 20 percent and the highest level of development in telecommunication.^[525] Iran has been awarded the UNESCO special certificate for providing telecommunication services to rural areas.

Globally, Iran ranks 75th in mobile internet speed and 153rd in fixed internet speed.^[526]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Iran

Population of Iranian provinces and counties in 2021

Iran’s population grew rapidly from about 19 million in 1956 to about 85 million by February 2023.^[527] Iran’s fertility rate has dropped dramatically, from 6.5 children born per woman to about 1.7 two decades later,^[528]^[529]^[530] leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% in 2018.^[531] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilises at around 105 million by 2050.^[532]^[533]^[534]

Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations, with almost one million,^[535] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.^[536] According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.^[537] This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.^[538]

Iran has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.^[539] Iran’s population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-west and west.^[540]

Tehran, with a population of around 9.4 million, is Iran’s capital and largest city. Iran’s second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.4 million, and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million and is Iran’s third most populous city. It is the capital of Isfahan province and was the third capital of the Safavid Empire.

v t eLargest cities or towns in Iran 2016 census
Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
1	Tehran	Tehran	8,693,706	11	Rasht	Gilan	679,995
2	Mashhad	Razavi Khorasan	3,001,184	12	Zahedan	Sistan and Baluchestan	587,730
3	Isfahan	Isfahan	1,961,260	13	Hamadan	Hamadan	554,406
4	Karaj	Alborz	1,592,492	14	Kerman	Kerman	537,718
5	Shiraz	Fars	1,565,572	15	Yazd	Yazd	529,673
6	Tabriz	East Azarbaijan	1,558,693	16	Ardabil	Ardabil	529,374
7	Qom	Qom	1,201,158	17	Bandar Abbas	Hormozgan	526,648
8	Ahvaz	Khuzestan	1,184,788	18	Arak	Markazi	520,944
9	Kermanshah	Kermanshah	946,651	19	Eslamshahr	Tehran	448,129
10	Urmia	West Azarbaijan	736,224	20	Zanjan	Zanjan	430,871

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnicities in Iran

Ethnic group composition remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity.

According to a 2003 estimate, Persians make up 51% of the population, while Azerbaijanis make up 24%, Gilaks and Mazenderanis 8%, Kurds 7%, Arabs 3%, Lurs 2%, Balochis 2%, Turkmens 2% and other groups (including Armenians, Jews, Assyrians, Qashqai, Shahsevan) make up the remaining 1%.^[541] The Library of Congress in 2008 issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (also including Gilaks and Mazenderanis^[j]), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Arabs, 2% Balochis, 1% Turkic tribal groups (such as Qashqai), and non-Persian, non-Turkic groups (including Armenians, Georgians, and Assyrians) less than 1%.^[543]

Ethnic based discrimination is prevalent in Iran. Minorities in Iran have been disproportionately affected by the ongoing crackdown aimed at repressing the ‘Woman, Life, Freedom’ movement, according to the UN Fact-Finding Mission.^[544]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Iran

Most of the population speaks Persian, Iran’s official and national language.^[545] Others include speakers of other Iranian languages, within the greater Indo-European family, and languages belonging to other ethnicities. The Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken in Gilan and Mazenderan, northern Iran. The Talysh language is spoken in parts of Gilan. Varieties of Kurdish are concentrated in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. In Khuzestan, several dialects of Persian are spoken. South Iran also houses the Luri and Lari languages.

Azerbaijani, the most-spoken minority language in Iran,^[546] and other Turkic languages and dialects are found in various regions, especially Azerbaijan. Notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, and the wider group of Iranian Arabs. Circassian was once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.^[547]^[548]^[549]^[550]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Iran

*Imam Reza* shrine, one of the most important religious places in Iran, Mashhad

Twelver Shi’a sect Islam is the state religion, to which 90–95% of Iranians adhere.^[551]^[552]^[553]^[554] About 5–10% of the population are in the Sunni and Sufi branches of Islam.^[555] Due to the authoritarian nature of the government, religious statistics for Iran are widely disputed and believed to differ from official statistics, which show overwhelmingly adherence to Twelver Shi’ism.^[556]

High-quality data is rare, but information that does exist has generally indicated that general public has rapidly secularized since the 1990s.^[557] An official, anonymous state-run poll in 2024 showed that 73 per cent of those surveyed expressed support for separating religion and state, compared to 31% in 2015. It also found that 7.9 per cent of respondents said they agree women must be made to wear hijab, down from 18.6 percent in 2015. The number of those actively objecting to the imposition of the mandatory hijab increased from 15.7 per cent to 34.4 per cent, while 38 per cent said they are not against people who break the hijab laws, up from 10.6.^[556]

The Sunni branch of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism are officially recognised by the government and have reserved seats in the Parliament.^[558] There is a large population of adherents to Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, estimated to comprise 500,000 to 1,000,000 followers.^[559]^[560]^[561]^[562]^[563] The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognised and has been subject to official persecution; the persecution of Baháʼís has increased since the Revolution.^[564]^[565]^[566] Irreligion is not recognised by the government. Iran is home to the largest Jewish community in the Muslim World and the Middle East, outside of Israel.^[567]^[568] Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran, and it is the largest recognised minority religion. Most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians.^[569]^[570]^[571] The Iranian government has supported the rebuilding and renovation of Armenian churches, and has supported the Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran. In 2019, the government registered the Vank Cathedral, in Isfahan, as a World Heritage Site. Three Armenian churches in Iran are included in the World Heritage List.^[572]^[573]

Education

Main article: Education in Iran

University of Tehran, the oldest Iranian university (1851), and among the World’s Top Universities

Education is highly centralised. K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education. Higher education is supervised by the Ministry of Science and Technology. Literacy among people aged 15 and older was 86% as of 2016, with men (90%) significantly more literate than women (81%). Government expenditure on education is around 4% of GDP.^[574]

The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam. Many students do a one–two-year course of pre-university.^[575] Iran’s higher education has different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree in two years, a bachelor’s degree in four years, and a master’s degree in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral programme.^[576]

Health

Main articles: Health in Iran and Healthcare in Iran

Healthcare is provided by the public-governmental system, the private sector, and NGOs.^[578]

Iran is the only country in the world with a legal organ trade.^[579] Iran has been able to extend public health preventive services through the establishment of an extensive Primary Health Care Network. As a result, child and maternal mortality rates have fallen significantly, and life expectancy at birth has risen. Iran’s medical knowledge rank is 17th globally, and 1st in the Middle East and North Africa. In terms of medical science production index, Iran ranks 16th in the world.^[580] Iran is fast emerging as a preferred destination for medical tourism.^[581]

Iran faces the common problem of other young demographic nations in the region, which is keeping pace with growth of an already huge demand for public services. An anticipated increase in the population growth rate will increase the need for public health infrastructures and services.^[582] In 2016, about 90% of Iranians had health insurance.^[583]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iran

Art

Main articles: Iranian art, Arts of Iran, and Iranian modern and contemporary art

Iran has one of the richest art heritages in history and been strong in many media including architecture, painting, literature, music, metalworking, stonemasonry, weaving, calligraphy and sculpture. At different times, influences from neighbouring civilisations have been important, and latterly Persian art gave and received major influences as part of the wider styles of Islamic art.

From the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), the courts of successive dynasties led the style of Persian art, and court-sponsored art left many of the most impressive pieces that remain. The Islamic style of dense decoration, geometrically laid out, developed in Iran into an elegant and harmonious style, combining motifs derived from plants with Chinese motifs such as the cloud-band, and often animals represented at a smaller scale. During the Safavid Empire in the 16th century, this style was used across a variety of media, and diffused from the court artists of the king, most being painters.^[585]

By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art had a renaissance.^[586] During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of European and Asian mediaeval art.^[587]^[588]^[589]^[590] The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art.^[591] Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.

Iran’s contemporary art traces its origins to Kamal-ol-molk, a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar Empire who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by him in 1928, and was followed by the so-called “coffeehouse” style of painting. Iran’s avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II. The contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran’s first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in 1949 by Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.^[592] The new movements received official encouragement by the 1950s,^[593] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian.^[594]

Architecture

Main articles: Iranian architecture and Persian gardens

The history of architecture in Iran dates back to at least 5,000 BC, with characteristic examples distributed over an area from what is now Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. The Iranians made early use of mathematics, geometry and astronomy in their architecture, yielding a tradition with structural and aesthetic variety.^[595] The guiding motif is its cosmic symbolism.^[596]

In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as Tehran has brought a wave of construction. Iran ranks 7th among UNESCO‘s list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.^[597]

World Heritage Sites

Main articles: List of World Heritage Sites in Iran and Iran National Heritage List

Iran’s rich culture and history is reflected by its 27 World Heritage Sites, ranking 1st in the Middle East, and 10th in the world. These include Persepolis, Naghsh-e Jahan Square, Chogha Zanbil, Pasargadae, Golestan Palace, Arg-e Bam, Behistun Inscription, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Susa, Takht-e Soleyman, Hyrcanian forests, the city of Yazd and more. Iran has 24 Intangible Cultural Heritage, or Human treasures, which ranks 5th worldwide.^[598]^[599]

Weaving

Main articles: Persian carpet, Tabriz rug, and Ardabil Carpet

Iran’s carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Carpet weaving is an essential part of Persian culture and Iranian art. Persian rugs and carpets were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes in village and town workshops, and by royal court manufactories. As such, they represent simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran, Persian culture, and its various peoples. Although the term “Persian carpet” most often refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven carpets and rugs like Kilim, Soumak, and embroidered tissues like Suzani are part of the manifold tradition of Persian carpet weaving.

Iran produces three-quarters of the world’s handmade carpets, and has 30% of export markets.^[600]^[601] In 2010, the “traditional skills of carpet weaving” in Fars Province and Kashan were inscribed to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.^[602]^[603]^[604] Within the Oriental rugs produced by the countries of the “rug belt”, the Persian carpet stands out by the variety and elaborateness of its manifold designs.^[605]

Carpets woven in towns and regional centres like Tabriz, Kerman, Ravar, Neyshabour, Mashhad, Kashan, Isfahan, Nain and Qom are characterized by their specific weaving techniques and use of high-quality materials, colours and patterns. Hand-woven Persian rugs and carpets have been regarded as objects of high artistic value and prestige, since they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers.

Literature

Main articles: Literature in Iran, Iranian literature, and Persian literature

Tombs of Hafez and Saadi in Shiraz

Iran’s oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion.^[606]^[607] The Persian language was used and developed through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving extensive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others. Iran has several famous medieval poets, notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Saadi Shirazi, Omar Khayyam, and Nizami Ganjavi.^[608]

Described as one of the great literatures of humanity,^[609] including Goethe‘s assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,^[610] Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle Persian and Old Persian, the latter of which dates back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Muslim conquest in c. 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic Caliphate and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties of post-Islamic Iran such as the Tahirids and Samanids being based in Khorasan.^[611]

Philosophy

Main articles: Ancient philosophy § Ancient Iranian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy

Iranian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots and were influenced by Zarathustra‘s teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social changes such as the Arab and Mongol invasions, a wide spectrum of schools of thoughts showed a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly Zoroastrianism-related traditions, to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era such as Manichaeism and Mazdakism as well as post-Islamic schools.

The Cyrus Cylinder is seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.^[612] Post-Islam Iranian philosophy is characterised by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Iran. Contemporary Iranian philosophy has been limited in its scope by intellectual repression.^[613]

Mythology and folklore

Main articles: Persian mythology and Iranian folklore

Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories of extraordinary beings reflecting on good and evil (Ahura Mazda and Ahriman), actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and creatures. The tenth-century Persian poet, Ferdowsi, is the author of the national epic known as the Shahnameh (“Book of Kings”), which is for the most part based on Xwadāynāmag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes,^[614] as well as the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, the Vendidad and the Bundahishn. Modern scholars study the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of not only Iran but of the Greater Iran, which includes regions of West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Transcaucasia where the culture of Iran has had significant influence.

Storytelling has a significant presence in Iranian folklore and culture.^[615] In classical Iran, minstrels performed for their audiences at royal courts and in public theatres.^[616] A minstrel was referred to by the Parthians as gōsān, and by the Sasanians as huniyāgar.^[617] Since the Safavid Empire, storytellers and poetry readers appeared at coffeehouses.^[618]^[619] After the Iranian Revolution, it took until 1985 to found the MCHTH (Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts),^[620] a now heavily centralised organisation, supervising all kinds of cultural activities. It held the first scientific meeting on anthropology and folklore in 1990.^[621]

Museums

Main article: List of museums in Iran

The National Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country’s most important cultural institution. As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of the Islamic Era. The National Museum is the world’s most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran,^[622] and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.^[622]

There are many other popular museums across the country such as the Golestan Palace (World Heritage Site), The Treasury of National Jewels, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Sa’dabad Complex, The Carpet Museum, Abgineh Museum, Pars Museum, Azerbaijan Museum, Hegmataneh Museum, Susa Museum and more. Around 25 million people visited the museums in 2019.^[623]^[624]

Music and dance

Main articles: Music of Iran, Iranian dance, and Classical Persian dance

A Karnay, an ancient Iranian musical instrument from 6th century BC, kept at the Persepolis Museum

Dancers on a piece of ceramic from Cheshmeh-Ali, 5000 BC

Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the third millennium BC.^[625] The use of angular harps have been documented at Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Xenophon‘s Cyropaedia mentions singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian Empire, the gōsān (Parthian for ‘minstrel’) had a prominent role.^[626]^[627]

The history of Sasanian music is better documented than earlier periods and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.^[628] By the time of Khosrow II, the Sasanian royal court hosted prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash. Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.

Iran’s first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded in 1933. By the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country’s first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.^[629] Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.^[630] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s.^[631]^[632]

Iran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC. Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in archaeological prehistoric sites.^[633] Genres of dance vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.^[634] Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it. The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshipping Mithra. Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historian Herodotus. Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions.

The Qajar period had an important influence on Persian dance. In this period, a style of dance began to be called “classical Persian dance“. Dancers performed artistic dances in court for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, and Norouz celebrations. In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West.

Fashion and clothing

Main article: Fashion in Iran

The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilisation. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be first to use animals’ skin and hair as clothing, while others propose Hushang.^[635] Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and colour of clothing became very important. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. This clothing, in addition to being functional, had an aesthetic role.^[635]

Cinema, animation and theatre

Main articles: Cinema of Iran, Iranian animation, and Persian theatre

A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City in southeast Iran depicts what could be the world’s oldest example of animation.^[637] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual centre of the Achaemenid Empire.^[638]

The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din of the Qajar Empire. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler’s visit to Europe. In 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi) opened the first public cinema in Tehran.^[639] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sound one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932. Iran’s animation industry began by the 1950s and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in 1965.^[640]^[641]

With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai‘s Downpour and Nasser Taghvai‘s Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed. Attempts to organise a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. It also resulted in the formation of Tehran’s World Film Festival in 1973.^[642]

Following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d’Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997.^[644] The presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as Cannes, Venice and Berlin, attracted attention to Iranian films.^[645] In 2006, 6 films represented Iranian cinema at Berlin; critics considered this a remarkable event in Iranian cinema.^[646]^[647] Asghar Farhadi, an Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017, with A Separation and The Salesman.^[648]^[649]^[650] In 2020, Ashkan Rahgozar‘s “The Last Fiction” became the first representative of Iranian animated cinema in the competition section, in Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories at the Academy Awards.^[651]^[652]^[653]^[654]

The oldest Iranian initiation of theatre can be traced to ancient epic ceremonial theatres such as Sug-e Siāvuڑ (“mourning of Siāvaڑ“), as well as dances and theatre narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon. Iran’s traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi (“grocer play”, a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-ڑab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta’zie (religious tragedy plays).^[655]

The Roudaki Hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed Vahdat Hall after the Revolution.

Media

Main article: Media of Iran

Iran’s largest media corporation is the state-owned IRIB. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.^[656] Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country’s official and national language. The country’s most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela’at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh.^[444] Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune are among the famous English-language newspapers based in Iran.

Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. Google Search is Iran’s most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.^[657] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009. About 90% of Iran’s e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.^[658]

Cuisine

Main article: Iranian cuisine

Iranian main dishes include varieties of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan. In Iranian culture, tea is widely consumed.^[659]^[660] Iran is the world’s seventh major tea producer.^[661] One of Iran’s most popular desserts is the falude.^[662] There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as Bastani Sonnati (“traditional ice cream”),^[663] which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.^[664] Iran is also famous for its caviar.^[665]

Typical Iranian main dishes are combinations of rice with meat, vegetables and nuts. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots and raisins. Characteristic Iranian spices and flavourings such as saffron, cardamom, and dried lime and other sources of sour flavoring, cinnamon, turmeric and parsley are mixed and used in various dishes.

Sports

Main article: Sport in Iran

Dizin, biggest ski resort in the Middle East

Azadi Stadium in Tehran, West Asia‘s largest football stadium

Iran is the birthplace of polo,^[666]^[667]^[668] locally known as Chogan, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.^[669] Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport, and Iran’s wrestlers have been world champions many times. Iran’s traditional wrestling, called koڑti e pahlevāni (“heroic wrestling”), is registered on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage list.^[670] Iran’s National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country’s highest records at the Olympics. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games.^[671]^[672]^[673]

As a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,^[674] and mountain climbing.^[675]^[676] It is home to ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak.^[677] Dizin is the largest, and authorised by FIS to administer international competitions.^[678]

Football is the most popular sport, with the men’s national team having won the Asian Cup three times. The men’s team ranks 2nd in Asia and 18th in the FIFA World Rankings as of April 2025.^[679] The Azadi Stadium in Tehran is the largest association football stadium in West Asia and on a list of top-20 stadiums in the world.^[680] Volleyball is the second most popular sport.^[681]^[682] Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men’s Volleyball Championships, the men’s national team is the 2nd strongest in Asia, and 15th in the FIVB World Rankings as of January 2025. Basketball is also popular, with the men’s national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007.^[683]

Observances

Public holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Iran

With 26, Iran has one of the world’s highest number of public holidays.^[705]^[706] It ranks 1st in the world with the most paid leave days: 52.^[707]^[708] Iran’s official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.^[709] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is solar.^[709] Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar marks international events.

Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1–4; 21–24 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2 April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1 April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4 June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5 June), the anniversary of the Iranian Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalisation Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).^[710]

Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9), Ashura (Muharram 10), Arba’een (Safar 20), Muhammad’s death (Safar 28), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13), Muhammad’s first revelation (Rajab 27), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha’ban 15), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2), the death of Ja’far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18).^[710]

Explanatory notes

^ English: /ɪˈrɑːn/ ^ⓘ ih-RAHN or /ɪˈræn/ ih-RAN or /aɪˈræn/ eye-RAN;^[7] Persian: ایران, romanized: Irân, pronounced [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] ^ⓘ
^ Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران, romanized: Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân, pronounced [dʒomhuːˈɾiːje eslɒːˈmiːje ʔiːˈɾɒːn] ^ⓘ.
^ English: /ˈpɜːrʒə/ ^ⓘ PUR-zhə.^[7]
^ The Parni was an eastern Iranian tribe established on the Amu Darya in the conferedation of Dahae.^[29] To Yarshater, they were a Saka tribe, who penetrated Parthia, adopted its language, and eventually challenged the Seleucids’ power in Parthia.^[30]
^ “Appointing and dismissing the chief of the general staff, the commander-in-chief of the Islamic Revolution Guards Corps, and the commanders of the armed forces.” ^[195]
^ “Declaring war and peace, and the mobilization of the armed forces.”^[197]
^ Officially the Ansar Allah, de facto government in Northwestern Yemen since 28 July 2016 under the Supreme Political Council.
^ Officially the Islamic Resistance Movement, de facto government of the Gaza Strip since 15 June 2007.
^ Examples include the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, Sejjil, Fattah, Khorramahahr, Kheibar Shekan, Emad, Ghadr-110, Hormuz-1, Dezful, Qiam 1, Ashoura, Fajr-3, Haj Qasem, Persian Gulf, Raad-500, Zolfaghar, Hoveyzeh, Soumar, Fakour-90, Paveh, Rezvan, Samen, Tondar-69.^{[citation needed]}
^ “The Factbook puts ‘Persian and Persian dialects’ at 58 percent, but 51 percent of the population as ethnic Persians, while the Library of Congress states that Persian ‘is spoken as a mother tongue by at least 65 percent of the population and as a second language by a large proportion of the remaining 35 percent. The ‘Persian’ mentioned in the latter report must thus also include Gilaki and Mazi. However, Gilaki and Mazi are actually from a different branch of the Iranian language subfamily than Persian, and could be as such be seen not as dialects, but as distinct languages. Suffice it here to say that while some scholars see categories such as Gilakis and Mazandaranis as referring to separate ethnic groups due to their linguistic traits, others count them as ‘Persians’ on exactly the same basis.”^[542]

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^ Mehraby, Rahman (22 March 2010). “Ceremonies in Iran”. DestinationIran.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017. … people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan.
^ “Tirgan Festival in Markazi Province” (PDF). Iran Daily. 22 June 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Hobson, Sarah; Lubchenco, Jane (5 August 1997). Revelation and the Environment, AD 95-1995. World Scientific. p. 151. ISBN 978-981-4545-69-3. Tirgan, is a joyous celebration of water in the height of summer, …
^ Leahy, Robert L. (2015). Emotional Schema Therapy. Guilford Publications. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-4625-2054-1. … , Tirgan (thanksgiving for water), …
^ “In Iran, Muslim youth are ‘even more excited about Christmas than Christians'”. France 24. 23 December 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ “Iranian Jews observe Hanukkah”. Al-Monitor. 28 November 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
^ “Iran Jews Celebrate Passover, Persian-style”. Haaretz. 25 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Holzel, David (24 May 2013). “Persian Passover”. Washington Jewish Week. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Dareini, Ali Akbar (31 January 2010). “Iranians celebrate ancient Persian fire fest”. NBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ “Ranking of the countries with the most public holidays”. HR Dive. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^ soheil (9 February 2022). “The Total Count of Public Holidays in Iran”. Iran Tours IranAmaze. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^ “Which countries have the most vacation days?”. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^ Soltani, Zahra (23 March 2023). “Iran Holiday: National & Public Holidays in Iran (Persian Holidays)”. IranOnTour. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Calendars” [The solar Hejrī (ٹ. = ٹamsī) and ٹāhanڑāhī calendars]. Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Iran Public Holidays 2017”. Mystery of Iran. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.

Bibliography

Encyclopaedia Iranica

Bosworth, C. Edmund (1986). “ANŪŠTIGIN ḠARČAʾĪ”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Bosworth, C. Edmund (2009). “KHWARAZMSHAHS i. Descendants of the line of Anuštigin”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Lawergren, Bo (2009). “Music History i. Pre-Islamic Iran”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Lecoq, P. (2011). “Aparna”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). “Ērān, Ērānšahr”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Matthee, Rudolph P. (2008). “Safavid Dynasty”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Perry, J. R. (1984). “Āgā Mohammad Khan Qājār”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Perry, J. R. (2000). “Zand Dynasty”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Savory, Roger; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998). “Esmāʿīl I Ṣafawī”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987). “Aryans”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopedia Iranica (Online ed.). New York: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Shahbazi, Alireza Shapour (2004). “Iraj”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Encyclopaedia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Shahbazi, Alireza Shapur (2005). “Sasanian Dynasty”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Shahbazi, Ernest (2006a). “Nāder Shāh”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.
Yarshater, Ehsan (2004). “IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times”. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.

Books

Aeschylus (1908). “The Persians”. Four Plays of Aeschylus. Translated by Morshead, E. D. A. Macmillan Publishers.
Aghaie, Kamran Scot (2012). “The Afghan Interlude and the Zand and Afshar Dynasties (1722–95)”. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973215-9.
Aigle, Denise (2024). Iran Under the Mongols: Ilkhanid Administrators and Persian Notables in Fars. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-7556-4573-2.
Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09876-7.
Baker, Patricia L. (2005) [2001]. Iran: The Bradt Travel Guide. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-123-4.
Barthold, V. V. (1962). Four Studies on the History of Central Asia: Volume III: Mir Ali-Shir: A Histoty of the Turkman People. Brill.
Blair, Sheila (1992). The Monumental Inscriptions from Early Islamic Iran and Transoxiana. Brill. ISBN 90-04-09367-2.
Brown, Brad (2011). “Ismail, Shah (Safavid) (1487–1524)”. In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
Dowling, Timothy C. (2014). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. 2 volumes. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-948-6.
El-Azhari, Taef (2019). “The Seljuqs from Syria to Iran: The Age of Khatuns and Atabegs”. Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661–1257. Edinburg University Press. pp. 285–348. doi:10.3366/edinburgh/9781474423182.003.0007. ISBN 978-1-4744-2318-2. S2CID 219872073.
Elling, Rasmus Christian (2013). Minorities in Iran: Nationalism and Ethnicity after Khomeini. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-04780-9.
Eiland, Murray (2004). “West Asia, 300 BC–AD 600”. In Onians, John (ed.). Atlas of World Art. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-521583-0.
Golden, Peter B. (2011). Central Asia in World History. Oxford University Press.
Dandamayev, Muhammad (2021). “Eastern Europe”. A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume II. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-07165-5.
Hawting, G. R. (1986). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate, AD 661–750. Croom Helm Ltd.
Hamzeh’ee, M. Reza (1990). The Yaresan: a Sociological, Historical, and Religio-Historical Study of a Kurdish Community. Berlin: K. Schwarz. ISBN 3-922968-83-X. OCLC 23438701.
Lane, George E. (2012). “The Mongols in Iran”. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973215-9.
Katouzian, Homa (2013). Iran: Politics, History and Literature. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-63689-6.
Lorentz, John H. (2007). The A to Z of Iran. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7638-5.
Matthews, Roger; Nashli, Hassan Fazeli (2022). The Archaeology of Iran from the Palaeolithic to the Achaemenid Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-22412-9.
Osman, Khalil (2014). Sectarianism in Iraq: The Making of State and Nation Since 1920. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-138-77946-4.
Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7656-8050-1.
Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Ross, Martha (1977). Rulers and Governments of the World: Volume 1: Earliest Times to 1491. Bowker. ISBN 0-85935-021-5.
Rossabi, Morris (2002). “The Mongols and Their Legacy”. The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256–1353. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 1-58839-071-3.
Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian–Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.
Shenkar, Michael (2014). Intangible Spirits and Graven Images: The Iconography of Deities in the Pre-Islamic Iranian World. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28148-6.
Strootman, Rolf (2020). “The Great Kings of Asia: Imperial Titulature in the Seleukid and Post-Seleukid Middle East”. New Perspectives in Seleucid History, Archaeology and Numismatics: Studies in Honor of Getzel M. Cohen. Walter de Gruyter GmbH. ISBN 978-3-11-028378-5.
Temperman, Jeroen (2010). “State Support & State Acknowledgement of Religion”. State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9.
Tohidi, Nayareh (2009). “Ethnicity and Religious Minority Politics in Iran”. In Gheissari, Ali (ed.). Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537849-8.
Venning, Timothy (2023). A Compendium of World Sovereigns: Volume I Ancient. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-36194-9.

External links

Library resources about
Iran

Key Development Forecasts for Iran from International Futures

Government

Government – Official website of the Government of Iran
Supreme Leader – official website of the supreme leader of Iran
Presidency – official website of the president of Iran
Consultative Assembly – official website of the National Consultative Assembly of Iran
Supreme Court – official website of the Supreme Court of Egypt
Statistics – official website of Statistical Centre of Iran

History

“History” – Iranian history at Embassy of Iran in Lisbon

Tourism

Visit Iran – Iran’s official tourism portal

Maps

Wikimedia Atlas of Iran
Geographic data related to Iran at OpenStreetMap

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Portals:

Iran at Wikipedia’s sister projects:

Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
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Travel guides from Wikivoyage

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Categories:

Contents

Iran

Name

History

Antiquity

Achaemenid Empire

The Parthian and Sasanian Empires

Medieval period

Early Islamic rule and regional resistance in Iran

The Abbasid revolution and Iranian Renaissance

Islamization and Persianization

The Seljuks and the Mongol invasions

The Ilkhanate and aftermath

Timur and the rise of new powers

Early modern period

Collapse of the Safavid Empire and successor dynasties

Nader Shah and the shifting balance of power

Rise of the Qajar dynasty and foreign interference

20th century up to the Iranian Revolution

Constitutional Revolution and the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty

World War II and post-occupation instability

Mosaddeq and the Shah’s rule

The Islamic Revolution, Khamenei, and after

Khomeini, Iran-Iraq War, and leadership transition

Khamenei era

Reform era (1989–2005)

Iranian nuclear program, principalist dominance (2005–2024)

Alleged nuclear breakout attempt, 2025 war (2025–)

Geography

Islands

Climate

Biodiversity

Government and politics

Supreme Leader

President

Guardian Council

Supreme National Security Council

Legislature

Law

Administrative divisions

Foreign relations

Military

Nuclear programme

Regional influence

Human rights and censorship

Economy

Tourism

Agriculture and fishery

Industry and services

Transport

Energy

Science and technology

Iranian Space Agency

Telecommunication

Demographics

Ethnic groups

Languages

Religion

Education

Health

Culture

Art

Architecture

World Heritage Sites

Weaving

Literature

Philosophy

Mythology and folklore

Museums

Music and dance

Fashion and clothing

Cinema, animation and theatre

Media

Cuisine

Sports

Observances

Public holidays

See also

Explanatory notes

References